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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


LJSRARr 

'LOS  ANGELES,  CALJi-. 


THE  SYNAESTHESIA  OF  A  BLIND  SUBJECT 

WITH  COMPARATIVE  DATA  FROM 

AN  ASYNAESTHETIC  BLIND 

SUBJECT 


RAYMOND  H0LDe4  WHEELER,  Ph.D. 

T 

THOMAS  D.  CUTSFORTH 


PUBUSHED    BY    THI    UNIYBBSITY 

University  Press  '       »       j 

BUOBNB  .»  '  /f     "    f 

•       •  *•'■     r 


65809 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

L  Q«neral  Introduction  3 

II.  Reagents,   Method,    Material      7 

IIL  Preliminary  Experiments 

A.  Introduction    9 

B.  Typical  Introspective  Data  on  A '«  Entoptic  Phenomenon 9 

C.  Conclusions  Concerning  A  's  Entoptic  Phenomenon 10 

D.  The  Behavior  of  A  's  Synaesthetic  Visual  Imagery  Compared  with 

the  Behavior  of  His  Entoptic  Processes  13 

E.  Summary  of  Preliminary  Experiments 14 

IV.  Results  from  Main  Experiments  ' 

A.  Series  1  j 

a.  Visual  Imagery 

i.  Typical  Introspective  Data 15  i 

ii.  Summary  of  Introspective  Data  on  Visual  Imagery 22  ' 

iii.  Visual  Imagery  of  A  and  B  Compared 27  ( 

iv.  The  Significance  of  A's  Synaesthetic  Imagery  in  Processes  I 

of  Visualizing   28  | 

b.  Auditory  Imagery  l 
i.  Typical  Introspective  Data  31 

ii.  Summary  of  Introspective  Data  on  Auditory  Imagery 34  ' 

iii.  Auditory  Imagery  of  A  and  B  Compared 36 

iv.  Significance  of  A 's  Synaesthetic  Processes  in  the  Field  of  | 

Auditory  Imagery     37  . 

c.  Tactual  Imagery  ' 

i.  Typical  Introspective  Data  38  i 

ii.  Summary  of  Introspective  Data  on  Tactual  Imagery 42  i 

iii.  Tactual  Imagery  of  A  and  B  Compared 45 

iv.  Significance  of  Synaesthetic  Imagery  in  A  's  Tactual  Pro-  i 

cesses  46  ; 

d.  Kinaesthetic  Imagery 

i.  Typical  Introspective  Data 48 

ii.  Summary  of  Introspective  Data  on  Kinaesthetic  Imagery   .  .  52 

iii.  Kinaesthetic  Imagery  of  A  and  B  Compared 54  j 

B.  Series  2.  Early  and  Recent  Memories 

a.  Early  Memories  i 

i.  Typical  Introspective  Data 55  | 

ii.  Summary  of  Introspective  Data  on  Early  Memories 58  i 

iii.  Early  Memories  of  A  and  B  Compared  .,, 61  ' 

iv.  Significance  of  Synaesthetic  Phenomena  in  A  's  Early  Mem- 
ories           62 

b.  Recent  Memories  i 
i.  Typical    Introspective    Data     * 63 

ii.  Summary  of  Introspective  Data  on  Recent  Memories 66 

iii.  Our      Observers'    Recent    Memories    Compared    with    Their  f 

Earlier   Memories    68  ^* 

iv.  Significance  of  Synaesthetic  Phenomena  in  A's  Recent  Mem- 
ories           69 

C.  Series  3.  Imagery  in  Constructive  Imagination 

i.  Typical  Introspective  Data   72        .' 

ii.  Summary  of  Introspective  Data  on  Processes  of  Imagifiktion  75      «( 

iii.  Observers  A  and  B  Comvare<l    77 

iv.  Hi^riificanee  of  A  '.s  Synaesthet'c    Phenomena    in    Processes 

of   Imagination    78 

D.  Series  4.  Free   Associations 

i.  Typical  Introspective  Data   - 80 

ii.  Summary  of  Introspective  Data  on  Free  Association 82 

iii.  Free  Association  in  A  and  B  Compared 84 

iv.  Significance   of   Synaesthetic    Phenomena    in    A's    Free    As-  '/ 

sociations     85       f       i 

V.  A  Theory  of  Synaesthesia   87  i 

VI.  Summary   97 

VII.  Conclusions    101 

Note   103 

VIII.  Bibliography 104 


^ 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject  with  Com- 
parative Data  from  an  Asynaesthetic 
Blind  Subject* 


1.  General  Introduction 

In  a  recent  monograph  (11)  the  senior  writer  reviewed  the 
general  subject  of  synaesthesia  and  described  a  very  complicated 
case  in  a  blind  reagent.  In  that  investigation  it  was  found  that 
the  reagent  not  only  associated  a  color  or  a  certain  degree  of 
brightness  with  every  sensory  experience  other  than  the  visual 
but  also  that  these  same  colored  associates  invariably  appeared 
in  his  processes  of  thinking  wherever  imagery  was  employed. 
The  investigation  here  reported  is  largely  concerned  with  a  de- 
-  scription  of  these  analogous  associations  in  certain  of  the  higher 
a}       intellectual  processes. 

Out  of  the  vast  amount  of  literature  on  synaesthesia  we  find 
very  little   mention  of  the   existence  of  synaesthetic  phenomena 
in  connection  with  mental  processes  other  than  that  of  perceiv- 
ing.    In  no  instance  has  a  case  in  the  realm  of  thinking  been 
fully  described.     In  fact  we  do  not  know  to  what  extent,  in  the 
..      same  individual,  synaesthetic  phenomena  appear  both  in  perceiv- 
es^    ing  and  in  thinking.     So  far  as  our  knowledge  goes  no  case  has 
^      ever  been  reported  in  which  colored  associates  or  allied  associated 
imagery  appeared  in  thinking  but  not  in  perceiving.    There  seems  to 
be  good  reason  for  believing  that  where  such  phenomena  appear 
in  perceiving,  they  likewise  occur  in  thinking  and  that  the  fail- 
ure to  report  this  fact,  generally,  in  the  literature  on  synaesthesia 


•s^       has  been  due  to  superficial  investigations  of  the  phenomena. 

A  survey  of  previous  studies   in   this  subject  reveals   the  fol- 
lowing generalizations: 

1.  Synaesthesia  consists  of  the  appearance  of  a  certain  stere- 
otyped image  with  a  given  sensory  experience.  The  phenome- 
non exists  in  a  variety  of  forms  the  most  common  of  which  is 


•The  term  "asynaesthetic"  is  used  throuRhout  this  monoRraph  to  mean  non-synaes- 
thetic.  We  are  indebted  to  Professor  Edwin  G.  Borinjr  for  sufrsestinB  this  term  and 
likewise  for  carefully  readins  the  entire  manuscript.  To  him  we  wish  to  express  our 
gratitude  for  many  valuable  suKKCstions  and  criticisms.  We  arc  also  indebted  in  no  small 
dcRree  to  Professor  Lewis  M.  Terman  who  road  the  manuscript  and  made  many  valuable 
suKnestions.  To  Dr.  Harold  R.  Croeland  we  wish  to  express  our  thanks  not  only  for  his 
kind  suKgestions  but  for  his  generous  assistance  in  reading  proof. 


[3] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

the  appearance  of  colored  visual  images  in  connection  with 
sounds,  tastes,  smells  and  tactual  experiences.  Where  tones  ap- 
pear colored,  the  experience  is  called  colored  hearing.  The  as- 
sociated image  is  sometimes  called  a  photisni  or  chromatism. 
Usually  the  associated  image  is  derived  from  a  sense  modality 
other  than  that  of  the  sensory  experience  itself.  The  following 
is  a  fairh^  complete  list  of  the  known  varieties  of  synaesthesia: 

A.  Of  acoustic  origin 

1.  colored  hearing  of  tones,  noises,  chords,  melodies,  sounds  of  vowels, 
consonants,  words  and  the  like; 

2.  gustatory   audition   in   which   tastes   are  associated   with   the   sounds 
of  words; 

3.  figured  audition  in  which  geometrical  forms  are  associated  with  the 
j^     sounds    of    words; 

"4.  pain  audition  in   which   tooth-aches   or   other   pain  images   are   asso- 
ciated with  tones  of  a  certain   quality. 

B.  .Of  visual   origin   in   which   visual   perceptions   of   lines,    forms,   figures, 
""'      letters,  digits  and  words  are  accompanied  by  colors. 

C;  Of  gustatory   origin 
l.^colored   tasting; 
2.'^fcolored  taste,  smell  and  cutaneous  complexes. 

D.  Of  olfactory  origin 
1.  colored   odors. 

E.  Of  cutaneous  origin 

1.  colored  pain,  pressure,  temperature  sensations; 
2v'colored  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  complexes; 

3.  auditory    pain   in    which   the   sensation    of   pain    is    accompanied   by 

imagery  of  a  sound. 

4.  Auditory-pressure    in    which    sensations    of    pressure    are    associated 
with   imagery    of    sounds; 

5.  cutaneous   or   kinaesthetic   taste   in   which   cutaneous    or   kinaesthetic 
sensations  are  accompanied  by  images   of  taste. 

E.  Of  kinaesthetic  origin  in  which  kinaesthetic  sensations  are  accompanied 
by 

1.  an  image  of  color  or  brightness; 

2.  an  image  of  taste. 

G.  Of   organic  origin   in  whicli   affective   or  emotional   experiences   are  ac- 
companied  by 
1.  an  image  of  color  or  brightness. 
H.  Personifications  or  dramatizations  of  ideas,  letters,  digits  or  words. 

This  classification  represents  roughly  the  order  of  frequency 
in  which  the  various  forms  of  synaesthesia  are  found. 

2.  Much  of  the  experimental  work  on  synaesthesia  has  been 
devoted  to  the  task  of  ascertaining  what  factors  determine  the 
origin,  the  variety  and  the  behavior  of  the  associated  image. 
No  satisfactory  conclusions  have  been  reached  conaerning  the 
origin  of  synaesthesis  although  it  is  generally  believed  that  the 
phenomenon  is  congenital.  The  modality  from  which  the  associ- 
ated image  is  derived  in  any  one  case  was  thought  to  depend 

[4] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

upon  certain  physiological  conditions  in  the  brain ;  and  the 
quality  of  the  associated  image  was  thought  to  depend,  in  many 
instances,  upon  laws  of  association.  The  behavior  of  the  as- 
sociated image  is  undoubtedly  determined  for  the  most  part  by 
the  same  factors  as  control  the  behavior  of  the  original  sensa- 
tion to  which  the  image  becomes  attached.  That  is,  the  associated 
image  appears  at  once  with  the  primary  sensation ;  it  persists 
as  long  as  does  the  primary  sensation  and  disappears  when  the 
primary  sensation  disappears ;  it  fluctuates  in  intensity  or  varies 
in  quality  as  does  the  primary  sensation,  and  so  on. 

3.  While  numerous  experimental  methods  have  been  employed 
in  former  investigations  of  synaesthesia  (11,  page  34)  in  no  in- 
stance was  the  reagent  a  thoroughly  trained  introspector  nor 
were  detailed  introspections  resorted  to  in  an  effort  to  ascertain 
the  laws  of  the  behavior  of  the  associated  imagery. 

4.  Detailed  analyses  of  large  numbers  of  individual  cases 
have  revealed  alleged  evidence  in  favor  of  a  physiological  ex- 
planation of  the  phenomenon  in  terms  of  such  processes  as  irra- 
diation or  lack  of  differentiation  of  function  in  cerebral  centers. 
Other  evidence,  however,  pointed  to  an  association  theory  (11, 
pages  36-39).  A  combination  of  these  views  is  highly  unsatis- 
factory for  two  reasons :  ( 1 )  It  presupposes  two  radically 
different  species  of  synaesthesia — a  state  of  affairs  which 
is  unwarranted  by  the  facts;  (2)  neither  view  does  justice 
to  the  functional  aspects  of  SA'naesthesis  itself  but  merely 
describes  the  conditions  under  which  the  phenomenon  occurs.  In 
other  words  neither  view  gives  us  a  clue  as  to  what  the  act  of 
synaesthesis  is.  Only  casually  has  it  been  mentioned  that  syn- 
aesthesis  may  be   a   form   of  reflex. 

5.  The  phenomenon  itself  is  relatively  rare,  appearing  in  8- 
10  per  cent  of  individuals,  according  to  some  investigators.  We 
believe,  however,  that  these  figures  are  too  high  and  that  5  per 
cent  or  a  number  slighth'  exceeding  the  frequency  of  color 
blindness  is  more  accurate.  While  in  certain  individuals  syn- 
aesthesis appears  to  be  of  no  particular  value,  in  others  it  has 
been  found  a  distinct  advantage.  From  time  to  time  attempts 
have  been  made  to  trace  the  significance  of  the  phenomenon  in 
the  poetry  of  synaesthetic  writers  (11,  page  26)  ;  and  certain 
Inusicians   have   endeavored   to   introduce    colors    in    connection 

[5] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

with  musical  productions  (11,  page  60)  but  owing  to  the  fact 
that  most  readers  on  the  one  hand  and  auditors  on  the  other  have 
no  synaesthetic  phenomena  of  their  own  and  hence  do  not  un- 
derstand or  appreciate  them  in  other  people,  such  attempts  have 
invariably  produced  negative  results.  Should  synaesthesis  be 
more  common  it  could  not  be  used  in  the  arts  for  the  reason  that 
the  phenomenon  varies  in  content  and  in  complexity  from  indi- 
vidual to  individual.  There  is  no  uniformity  in  the  quality  or 
form  of  the  image  which  happens  to  become  associated  with  a 
given  sound,  letter  or  object. 

6.  Whether  synaesthesis  is  a  unit  trait  which  follows  Mendel 's 
law  of  inheritance  has  not  been  ascertained.  There  seems  to  be  no 
definite  evidence  that  the  phenomenon  is  inherited.  In  some 
instances  it  appears  to  run  in  families  but  in  a  greater  number 
of  instances  it  apparently  does  not.  The  early  origin  of  syn- 
aesthesis in  the  life  of  the  individual  who  possesses  it  points  to 
the  fact  that  the  phenomenon  is  congenital. 

7.  Synaesthesis  is  apparently  more  common  among  children 
than  among  adults.  Probably  at  least  50  per  cent  of  the  total 
number  of  cases  existing  in  childhood  disappear  during  the  men- 
tal changes  of  the  adolescent  period.  In  such  instances,  how- 
ever, in  M'hich  the  phenomenon  persists  over  long  periods  of  time 
and  in  which  the  individual  has  been  subjected  to  repeated  tests, 
the  striking  fact  has  been  revealed  that  the  associations  have  re- 
mained constant.  For  example  where  in  early  childhood  a  flute 
tone  appears  blue,  a  flute  tone  will  appear  that  same  quality  of 
blue  many  years  afterward.  Of  what  changes  take  place  in  syn- 
aesthesis during  senescence  we  have  no  knowledge. 

8.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  recorded  cases  of 
synaesthesia  have  been  perceptual  phenomena  with  onl}'  a  scat- 
tered report  now  and  then  of  similar  associations  in  processes  of 
thinking  there  has  arisen  among  psychologists  a  predisposition 
to  regard  true  synaesthesia  as  a  peripherally  aroused  process. 
Since  related  phenomena  do  exist  in  dreams  (12)  and  in  pro- 
cesses of  thinking  (11,  page  39)  it  is  evident  that  more  light  may 
be  thrown  upon  the  nature  of  the  perceptual  variety  from  a  de- 
tailed study  of  tlie  latter.  Moreover,  in  the  latter  we  find  that 
it  is  an  image  of  the  original  sensory  experience  which  now  has 
the  same  colored  associate  as  did  the  sensory  experience  itself. 

[61 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

This  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  "imaginal  synaesthesia" 
is  derived  from  "perceptual  synaesthesia"  and  therefore  has  as 
much  claim  to  the  ter.n  synaesthesia  as  its  parent  phenomenon. 

In  order  to  keep  these  two  forms  clearly  differentiated  we 
shall  speak  of  the  perceptual  or  sensory  form,  which  is  peri- 
pherally aroused,  as  "synaesthesia"  and  shall  call  the  same 
phenomenon,  as  it  appears  in  the  realm  of  the  higher  intellectual 
processes,   a   " synaesthetic   phenomenon." 

We  have  here  introduced  as  "check  data"  results  from  a  sec- 
ond blind  subject  who  has  no  synaesthesia  of  any  sort.  Thus 
the  data  from  the  synaesthetic  subject  will  be  emphasized  in  con- 
trast with  the  data  from  the  asynaesthetic  reagent. 


II.  Reagents,  Method,  Material 

The  reagents  in  this  investigation  were  Thomas  D.  Cutsforth, 
observer  A  and  joint  author  of  this  monograph;  and  Leslie  C. 
Blades,  observer  B.  A  is  now  28  years  of  age.  He  lost  his  sight 
by  accident  at  the  age  of  11.  His  right  eye  was  at  that  time 
so  badly  damaged  that  it  was  removed  and  an  artificial  eye  was 
substituted.  Sufficient  musculature  remained,  making  it  pos- 
sible for  the  subject  to  move  the  artificial  eye  slightly  in  any 
direction.  The  left  eye  became  inflamed  immediately  following 
the  accident,  and  has  remained  badly  out  of  focus  since  that 
time.  The  left  retina,  however,  was  not  destroyed  and  is  still 
slightlj'  functioning,  as  our  preliminary  experiments  will  reveal. 
A  graduated  from  the  University  of  Oregon  in  1918.  Since  that 
time  he  has  tauglit  in  a  high  school.  At  present  he  is  a  gradu- 
ate student  and  assistant  in  Psychology  at  the  University  of 
Oregon. 

Observer  B  graduated  from  the  University  of  Oregon  in  1916 
and  obtained  an  A.M.  degree  in  1917.  He  lost  his  sight  by  acci- 
dent at  the  age  of  9.  He  was  25  years  of  age  when  his  intros- 
pective data  were  obtained. 

The  data  for  this  investigation  are  entirely  introspective  and 
were  throughout  obtained  under  standardized  conditions.  B's 
introspections  were  given  during  the  winter  of  1916  while  the 
reagent  was  a  major  student   in  the  psychology  laboratory,  and 

[7] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

were  at  that  time  edited  by  the  reagent  himself.  In  introducing 
this  material  as  data,  here,  great  care  has  been  exercised  in  keep- 
ing them  as  closely  as  possible  in  their  original  form. 

The  introspections  from  observer  A  were  obtained  during  the 
winter  of  1921.  Unless  otherwise  mentioned,  the  sets  of  data 
from  both  A  and  B  were  obtained  under  identical  conditions  and 
under  similar  instructions.  The  senior  writer,  throughout,  was 
the  experimenter. 

After  the  instructions  had  been  given  to  the  observer  and 
the  task  had  been  fulfilled,  the  observer  dictated  his  introspec- 
tion in  as  great  detail  as  possible  to  the  experimenter  who  wrote  it 
down  in  full.  Then,  at  times,  the  experimenter  asked  carefully 
worded  questions  in  order  to  obtain  greater  detail  here  and  there 
in  the  introspective  descriptions.  All  such  questions,  however, 
were  carefully  presented  in  order  to  avoid  any  possible  influence 
of  suggestion.  Rarely  were  such  questions  necessary  and  in  no 
instance  was  a  leading  question  asked. 

Details  concerning  apparatus  and  instructions  will  appear  in 
connection  with  the  presentation  of  the  data.  In  general  the 
reagent  was  instructed  to  assume  a  comfortable  position  in  his 
chair  and  to  prepare  himself  for  the  instructions.  Such  a  prepa- 
ration consisted  of  assuming  a  receptive  attitude  toward  the  in- 
structions and  of  waiting  for  any  distracting  thought  or  other 
minor  disturbance  to  pass  away  before  the  instructions  were 
finally  presented.  The  reagent  then  announced  when  he  was 
ready  whereupon  the  instructions  were  read  to  him.  In  no  in- 
stance, unless  it  was  particularly  desired  otherwise,  was  the 
reagent  warned  in  advance  as  to  what  the  nature  of  the  instruc- 
tions would  be.  This  procedure  was  followed  in  order  that  the 
resulting  mental  processes  might  be  as  spontaneous  as  possible 
and  that  they  might  not  be  affected  by  antecedent  processes. 
Each  series  of  experiments  was  separated  from  the  others  either 
by  a  period  of  adequate  rest  or  by  performance  on  successive 
days. 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

III.  Preliminary  Experiments 

A.  Introduction. 

Observer  A  is  not  totally  blind.  His  vision,  however,  is  con- 
fined to  a  certain  form  of  entoptic  phenomenon.  While  on  a 
clear  day  when  the  sun  is  high  and  the  reflection  of  light  from 
objects  in  the  environment  is  at  a  raiximum,  A  can  obtain  vague 
glimpses  now  and  then  of  objects  near  him.  Such  vision  is 
very  uncertain,  is  always  mingled  with  visual  imagery  and 
entoptic  phenomena  and  never  exceeds  an  area  larger  than  the 
palm  of  one's  hand.  Since  such  experiences  are  exceedingly 
rare  we  need  not  describe  them  in  detail.  That  light  does  at 
times  penetrate  to  the  retina  is  confirmed  by  other  facts.  If  A's 
left  eye  happens  to  be  turned  in  the  proper  direction  toward  a 
source  of  artificial  light  one  corner  of  a  vague  visual  field  is  at 
times  dimly  and  momentarily  brightened.  Owing  to  the  distor- 
tion in  the  shape  and  direction  of  the  ej^-ball  such  light  as  does 
reach  the  retina  always  falls  upon  the  peripherj'  and  not  upon 
the  fovea.  A's  experiences  of  seeing,  as  far  as  external  stimuli 
are  concerned,  therefore,  are  confined  to  blurred  and  dimmed 
peripheral  vision. 

On  the  other  hand  A  is  constantly  aware  of  a  "field  of  vis- 
ion" before  him,  which  is  filled  with  colors  and  brightnesses  of 
innumerable  varieties  of  quality,  size  and  form.  In  order  to 
ascertain  if  possible  whether  this  was  synaesthetic  imagery  or 
actual  visual  sensation,  A  gave  complete  introspective  decrip- 
tions  of  these  visual  experiences. 

B.  Typical  introspective  data  on  A's  entoptic  phenomenon. 

[Note:  The  numbers  which  appear  before  each  introspection  are  intro- 
duced for  the  j)urpose  of  reference.  In  parentheses  ()  are  to  be  found  A's 
own  interpretations  of  his  introspections,  given  during  the  act  of  introspect- 
ing; in  brackets  []  are  to  bo  found  the  authors'  subsequent  comments.  These 
comments  are  intended  to  bring  out  the  important  or  highly  significant  feat- 
ures of  the  j)receding   introspective   data.] 

1.  "Outstretched  bidimentionally  before  me  at  a  distance  of  what  ap- 
pears to  be  but  a  few  centimeters  is  a  spacial  field  about  as  large  as  one 
ordinarily  sees  before  him.  oval  in  shape,  but  with  indistinct  limits  at  the 
periphery.  This  field  is  not  a  flat  surface,  as  if  one  were  looking  at  a  sheet  of 
paper,  but  resembles,  I  think,  what  one  would  'see'  if  he  suddenly  entered 
a  dark  room,  so  far  as  depth  is  concerned.  This  field  is  filled  with  changing 
colors   and    brightnesses    which   are   shifting   about   in    kaleidoscopic    fashion, 

[9] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

At  one  instant  these  colors  and  brightnesses  are  irregular  blotches  which  are 
constantly  changing  in  size,  shape  and  outline.  They  change  so  rapidly  that  it 
is  utterly  impossible  to  describe  them  in  minute  detail.  The  center  of  this 
visual  field  tends  to  be  dominated  by  yellows,  'pinks,'  reds  and  light  greens. 
The  next  instant  these  colors  become  streaks  or  'spatters,'  as  if  they  had 
been  sprayed  upon  some  invisible  surface,  and  what  corresponds  to  this  surface 
is  a  background  of  changing  greys,  sometimes  real  dark,  or  almost  black, 
and  sometimes  more  of  a  neutral  grey.  The  background  itself  is  constantly 
changing  in  brightness.  Farther  out  from  the  center  of  this  visual  field  are 
darker  greens,  bluish  greens  and  blues,  and  still  farther,  toward  the  periphery, 
are  dark  and  very  poorly  saturated  'bottle'  greens  or  'navy'  blues  until, 
at  the  very  edge,  colors  and  forms  alike  become  indistinct,  duller  and  darker, 
merging  into  nothing  but  shades  of  black.  Again,  colors  may  entirely  disap- 
pear momentarily  and  the  entire  field  becomes  a  mottled  grey.  At  times  there 
appear  very  suddenly,  covering  the  entire  field,  fine  networks  of  white  or 
yellowish  streaks  which  resemble  flashes  of  lightning.  These  flashes  whirl 
about  and  constantly  change  their  position  and  direction.  Then  again  I  see 
powdery  whirls  of  fine,  grey  specks  on  a  darker  background,  or  dark  specks 
on  a  lighter  background,  the  whole  visual  field  becoming  a  seething  mass  of 
'  molecular-like  dust. '  There  are  no  reds  beyond  a  limited  area  in  the  center 
of  the  field;  there  are  no  colors  in  the  far  periphery.  The  whole  field  is 
characterized  by  rapidity  of  change  in  color  and  brightness,  by  sudden  and 
continuous  shiftings  in  the  form,  shape  and  outline  of  the  colored  areas.  All 
the  colors  and  brightness^es  appear  the  same  distance  from  me  and  since  they 
are  constantly  changing  in  shape  and  quality  hardly  ever  are  there  any  dis- 
tinct outlines  to  these  forms.  (I  believe  that  they  resemble  spatterings  of 
of  diflFerent  water  colors  or  shades  of  black  and  white  as  they  would  appear 
if  painted  at  random  upon  a  wet  surface,  upon  which  the  different  colors  and 
brightnesses  would  'run'   together.)" 

The  following  is  an  account  of  A 's  remembrance  of  this  phenomenon 
which  extends  back  to  the  years  1904  and  1905: 

2.  "  It  was  in  the  winter  of  1904  that  I  first  noticed  this  phenomenon  and 
it  was  during  the  time  that  my  left  eye  was  recovering  from  its  inflammation. 
I  used  to  sit  by  the  hour  and  watch  these  changing  colors  and  I  noticed,  at  the 
time,  that  physical  exertion  brightened  the  colors  and  made  them  more  var- 
iable. (This  was  evidently  due  to  changes  in  circulation  which  resulted  from 
physical  action.)  As  I  recall  the  colors  as  they  appeared  then,  I  think  that 
the  blotches  and  irregularly  colored  areas  were  at  that  time  larger  than  they 
are  now  and  there  were  larger  areas  of  grey  between  the  colors.  Now  the  forms 
are  smaller  and  more  thickly  distributed  with  resulting  smaller  areas  of  grey 
background." 

[Introspection  (1)  resembles  so  closely  other  introspections  on  this  phen- 
omenon that  additional  data  is  unnecessary.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
distribution  of  colors  in  this  visual  field  described  by  A  corresponds  to  the 
distribution  of  colors  in  the  retinal  zones.  Reds  and  greens  appear  only  at  or 
near  the  center  of  this  visual  field;  blues  and  yellows  appear  toward  the  per- 
iphery and  beyond  the  reds  and  greens.  At  the  very  margin  of  this  visual 
field  there  appear  only  greys  and  blacks.  White  streaks  may  be  distributed 
over  the  entire  field,  or  at  least  very  close  to  the  margin.  This  distribution  of 
colors  and  brightness  suggests  at  once  that  the  phenomenon  is  sensory,  and 
peripherally  aroused.] 

C.   Conclusions  concerning  A's   entoptic   phenomenon. 

These  introspections  describe  almost  exactly  the  phenomenon 
which  the  normal  seeing  person  can  at  any  time  observe  when 
he  closes  his  eyes  and  presses  upon  the  eye-balls.     One  often  ob- 

[10  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

serves  this  same  phenomenon  when  he  suddenly  enters  a  dark 
room.  It  is  quite  evident,  therefore,  that  A  has  described  a  form 
of  entoptie  phenomenon  which  is  so  common  that  one  need  not  dis- 
cuss the  literature  on  the  subject.  The  retina  possesses  a  slight 
amount  of  "inherent"  light  of  its  own,  associated  perhaps  with 
the  ''visual  purple"  or  purple  pigment  which  lies  adjacent  to 
the  rods  and  cones.  It  is  this  faint,  inherent  light  which  one 
*'sees"  as  "black"  when  he  enters  an  absolutely  dark  room;  and 
it  is  because  of  this  inherent  light  in  the  retina  that  under  con- 
ditions of  mechanical  stimulation  by  means  of  pressure,  circula- 
tory changes  and  the  like,  one  sees  colors  and  varying  degrees 
of  brightness,  although  the  eyes  are  closed  or  external  light  is 
prevented  from  reaching  the  retina.  This  entoptie  phenomenon 
belongs  to  the  class  of  "muscae  volitantes". 

The  following  facts  concerning  observer  A's  entoptie  phe- 
nomenon justify  us  in  concluding  that  he  actually  sees  colors 
and  shades  of  brightness. 

1.  The  colors  and  brightness  are  distributed,  in  the  visual 
field,  according  to  the  distribution  of  colors  in  the  retinal  zones. 

2.  The  phenomenon  is  continuous  in  waking  life  and  only  by 
not  attending  to  it  can  A  avoid  "seeing"  it. 

3.  It  is  possible  to  distinguish  the  behavior  and  localization 
of  visual  imagery  from  the  behavior  and  localization  of  the  colors 
and  brightnesses  of  this  entoptie  phenomenon.  Visual  imagery 
may  be  localized,  at  will,  in  front  of  or  behind  this  entoptie  field 
of  vision. 

4.  The  entoptie  field  of  vision  is  not  subject  to  voluntary 
control  other  than  as  an  object  of  attention.  A  cannot  change 
the  forms  or  colors  at  will  except  by  employing  mechanical 
means  such  as  pressure  upon  the  eye-ball  and  under  such  cir- 
cumstances the  changes  are  fortuitous  so  far  as  voluntary  con- 
trol of  the  colors  themselves  is  concerned.  He  cannot  cause  these 
colors  to  appear  or  disappear  except  as  they  tend  to  become 
changed  by  resorting  to  mechanical  means  such  as  pressure  upon 
the  eye-ball  or  eye-movement. 

5.  The  phenomenon  has  now  persisted  for  17  years  and  with 
the  exception  mentioned  in  introspection  number  2,  it  has  not 
changed  in  the  meantime. 

[11] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

6.  A's  retina  is  subject  to  constant  pressure  from  within. 
The  shape  and  position  of  the  eye-ball  reveal  some  evidences  of 
"sear  tissue"  or  other  growths  which  would  provide  such  a  pre- 

sure. 

7.  Sufficient  rays  penetrate  the  eye  to  keep  the  retina  con- 
stantly supplied  with  inherent  light.  This  conclusion  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  when  A's  left  eye  is  in  a  certain  position  with 
reference  to  a  brilliant  light,  one  corner  of  his  peripheral  field 
of  vision  is  dimly  and  momentarily  brightened. 

8.  A's  introspections  reveal  the  usual  differences  between 
visual  sensations  and  visual  imagery: 

a.  The  forms  and  colors  of  the  eutopic  phenomena  always 
appear  at  the  same  distance  from  his  eye;  there  is  a  regu- 
larity, constancy  and  "firmness"  or  stability  about  them  which 
visual  imagery  ordinarily  lacks. 

b.  The  forms  and  colors  cannot  be  projected  or  localized 
at  will  as  is  characteristic  of  visual  imagery;  for  example,  A 
can  project  visualized  colors  or  objects  behind  him  but  the  re- 
lative position  of  this  visual  entoptic  field  never  changes. 

c.  A  can  attend  to  this  phenomenon  together  with  visual 
imagery  and  is  able  to  note,  introspectively,  the  differences  in 
behavior,  quality  and  localization  of  the  two  groups  of  visual 
phenomena. 

d.  If  the  visual  imagery  is  faint  or  fleeting  entoptic  phenomena 
may  claim  A's  attention  to  the  exclusion  of  the  visual  imagery;  if 
the  latter  be  vivid  or  persistent  A  is  able  to  ignore  the  entoptic 
field. 

e.  The  greys  of  the  entoptic  field  function  as  a  back- 
ground for  most  of  A's  visual  imagery, 

9.  The  fact  that  A  actually  sees  brightnesses  and  colors  ac- 
counts for  the  fact  that  he  is  able  to  describe  colors  and  shades  of 
grey  with  remarkable  accuracy  after  17  years  of  practical  blind- 
ness ;  it  also  explains  why  visual  imagery  has  retained  its  vividness 
and  minuteness  of  detail  as  far  as  qualities  are  concerned.  It  may 
also  account  for  the  fact  that  his  synaesthetic  phenomena,  which  are 
invariably  visual,  have  persisted  undisturbed  by  blindness  over 
17  years  of  time. 

We  feel  justified,  in  view  of  the  above  facts,  in  concluding  that 
A's  visual  imagery  which  functions  in  his  synaesthetic  phenomena 

[12] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

is  not  to  be  confused  with  his  entoptic  phenomenon.  The  colors  and 
brightnesses  in  his  synaesthetic  processes  are  definitely  images 
and  not  sensations.  They  appear  and  disappear  as  do  ordinary  vis- 
ual images  unless  their  behavior  is  controlled  by  the  behavior  of 
the  primary  auditory  or  tactual  sensation  of  which  they  are  the 
accompaniments. 

D.  The  behavior  of  A's  synaesthetic  visual  imagery  compared 
with  the  behavior  of  his  sensory  entoptic  processes. 
To  ascertain  whether  or  not  A's  entoptic  phenomenon  might 
exert  some  influence  on  the  functioning  of  his  visual  synaesthetic 
processes  when  both  appear  in  consciousness  at  the  same  time,  a 
series  of  tests  was  made  in  which  the  reagent  was  instructed  to  at- 
tend to  the  colors  of  his  visual  field  and  to  be  in  readiness  to  report 
what  happened  to  this  visual  field  when  synaesthetic  visual  imagery 
was  aroused.  This  procedure  was  also  undertaken  for  the  purpose 
of  discovering  whether  A  ever  confused  his  visual  sensations  with 
his  synaesthetic  visual  imagery. 

The  following  introspection  is  typical  and  resembles  so  closely 
a  mass  of  introspective  material  on  this  point  that  only  one  is  here 
introduced.  While  the  reagent  was  attending  to  the  colors  and 
brightnesses  of  his  entoptic  field  the  experimenter  placed  a  piece 
of  cold  metal  upon  his  head  just  to  the  left  of  and  above  his  left 
eye.  The  reagent  did  not  know  in  advance  what  stimulus  was  to 
be  applied. 

3.  "I  was  attending  to  a  particular  splotch  of  poorly  saturated  red  near 
the  center  of  my  field  of  vision  and  was  non-focally  conscious  of  changing 
colors  and  brightnesses  over  a  much  wider  area  when  my  attention  was  suddenly 
claimed  by  some  object  touching  my  forehead  and  by  a  widespread  muscular 
response  of  flinching.  This  latter  reaction  was  distributed  about  the  shoulders, 
neck,  chest  and  facial  muscles;  (I  was  evidently  surprised  at  being  touched 
on  my  forehead  and  was  reflexly  shrinking  from  the  sudden  stimulus.)  Up 
to  this  time  I  was  totally  unaware  of  what  object  had  been  applied  and  totally 
unconscious  of  the  fact  that  the  stimulus  was  cold.  After  my  attention  had 
momentarily  lingered  upon  this  widespread  motor  reaction,  I  found  my  line  of 
regard  fixated  upon  the  upper  left  hand  section  of  my  field  of  vision,  which 
suddenly  became  flooded  with  white  light.  I  actually  detected  the  light  as  it 
came  in  and  occui)ied  for  a  moment  the  area  of  my  visual  field  which  had  but 
a  moment  before  been  filled  with  indefinite  streaks  and  spots  of  faded  colors 
or  diflTerent  shades  of  grey.  Simultaneously  with  this  appearance  of  a 
brilliant  white  light  which  claimed  focal  attention,  I  was  dimly  aware  of  the 
remaining  portion  of  my  field  of  vision  and  here  the  kaleidoscopic  forms  and 
colors  were  still  persisting.  I  noted  that  the  brilliant  light  was  slightly  nearer 
my  face  than  the  entoptic  sensations.  I  noted  also  that  the  colors  in  the  uppcT 
left  hand  section  of  mv  visual  field  vanished  or  gave  way  to  the  white  light 

[13] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

as  if  the  light  itself  had  been  a  cloud-like  curtain  which  had  suddenly  rolled 
down  in  front  of  the  existing  colors.  I  could  not  see  the  entoptic  colors  or 
forms  behind  the  white  light ;  they  had  '  melted  away ' ;  the  white  light  itself 
was  stable,  constant  and  stationary  until  the  experimenter  took  away  the 
cold  object  from  my  forehead.  At  no  time  was  I  focally  aware  of  the  coldness 
of  the  metal  as  such."  [The  cold  metal  was  applied  to  A's  forehead  for  an 
interval  of  three  seconds.  The  nearness  of  the  white  silvery  light  which  was 
associated  with  the  coldness  of  the  stimulus  was  evidently  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  area  selected  for  stimulation  was  adjacent  to  A 's  left  eye.  The  shape, 
brilliance  and  persistence  of  the  synaesthetic  image  correspond  to  analogous 
features  of  the  stimulus.  It  was  found  that  when  auditory  stimuli  were  used 
the  source  of  which  was  a  meter  or  more  from  the  reagent,  the  synaesthetic 
imagery  was  invariably  localized  farther  out  in  space,  i.e.,  beyond  the  local- 
ization of  the  entoptic  colors.  But  in  every  instance  synaesthetic  imagery 
seemed  to  flash  in  or  roll  into  A 's  visual  field,  at  once  taking  the  place  of  the 
entoptic  sensations,  wherever  the  two  tended  to  occupy  the  same  area.] 

Thus  it  is  evident  that  entoptic  phenomena  constitute  one  set  of 
visual  experiences  and  that  synaesthetic  processes  constitute  an 
entirely  different  group.  The  first  is  sensation  and  the  second  is 
image.  One  can  best  envisage  how  A  is  able  to  ascertain  the  differ- 
ence, introspectively,  between  colored  visual  imagery  and  colored 
entoptic  phenomena,  by  trying  to  visualize  an  object  or  a  landscape 
with  his  eyes  shut,  noting  at  the  same  time  what  becomes  of  the 
blackness  which  he  "sees"  when  his  eyes  are  closed.  Moreover,  it 
is  a  matter  of  everyday  experience  for  the  normal  sighted  person 
to  visualize  with  his  eyes  open  without  confusing  visual  imagery 
with  visual  sensation.  We  can  dispel  all  doubt,  therefore,  that  the 
visual  imagery  which  A  describes  in  his  processes  of  thinking  is 
not  a  confused  interpretation  of  his  entoptic  processes. 

E.    Summary  of  preliminary  experiments. 

a.  Observer  A  is  not  totally  blind.  With  his  left  eye  he  "en- 
toptically"  sees  colors  and  brightnesses. 

b.  These  colors  and  brightnesses  are  sensory  experiences  and 
are  definitely  distinguishable  from  visual  imagery. 

c.  Our  reagent  in  no  way  confuses  his  visual  imagery  with  these 
entoptic  phenomena  when  the  two  sets  of  visual  processes  are  sim- 
ultaneously present  in  consciousness. 

d.  A's  visual  synaesthetic  phenomena  are  visual  images  and  are 
not  to  be  confused  with  entoptic  processes,  although  the  latter  may 
have  played  a  role  during  his  17  years  of  blindness,  in  preventing 
the  former  from  changing  or  from  decaying. 


[14] 


The  Synaesthesiu  of  a  Blind  Subject 

IV.  Results  From  Main  Experiments 

A.  Series  1. 

a.  Visual  imagery. 

i.  Typical  introspective  data. 

[Instructions:  "  Think  of  a  bunch  of  white  rosebuds  lying  among  fern 
leaves  in  a  florist's  box."] 

4.  Observer  A.  "  As  soon  as  the  experimenter  read  the  instructions  there 
at  once  appeared  visual  imagery  of  a  small  bouquet  of  ivory-white  rosebuds 
about  one-third  opened,  lying  in  a  box,  with  the  tips  of  the  buds  pointing  to 
the  right.  The  details  of  the  buds — the  shape,  the  curling  of  the  petals,  the 
qualities  of  the  whiteness,  etc. — stood  out  very  distinctly,  although  outlines  were 
not  sharply  defined.  When  the  experimenter  said  'ferns'  I  found  my  attention 
shifting  from  this  visual  imagery  of  the  buds  to  a  region  slightly  tJ  the  left 
and  below  them,  where  I  visualized  a  mass  of  green,  with  merely  a  dark  streak 
or  shadow  here  and  there,  giving  the  imagery  a  'netted'  appearance;  I  saw  no 
other  details  of  the  ferns.  I  then  found  myself  anticipating  the  word  'box' 
in  verbal  imagery  and  visualized  the  front  side  and  one  end  of  a  box  very 
distinctly;  the  box  was  about  three  inches  in  height,  but  further  details  of 
shape  and  size  were  fleeting  and  vague;  I  saw  nothing  of  the  box  at  its  other 
end,  nor  did  any  of  it  appear  through  or  behind  the  rosebuds  and  ferns.  At 
that  time  I  did  not  build  out  stems  or  thorns,  nor  did  I  have  any  tactual  or 
kinaesthetic  imagery.  The  visual  imagery  appeared  in  a  visual  setting.  The 
box  of  roses  was  lying  on  my  study  table  in  Friendly  Hall  but  I  did  not  see 
distinctly  any  details  of  the  table;  beyond  the  table  I  saw  a  dark  grey  back- 
ground which  tended  to  difl'erentiate  into  an  open  window  at  the  left.  There 
then  followed  fleeting  visual  imagery  of  books  but  at  this  juncture  I  recalled 
the  instructions  and  began  to  introspect." 

5.  Observer  B,  [Same  instructions  as  for  observer  A  above.]  "As  the 
exjjerimenter  read  the  instructions  I  was  first  aware  of  very  fleeting,  indefin- 
itely outlined  visual  imagery  of  the  buds,  which  were  opaque  white,  not  clear 
but  diffuse  and  'creamy';  but  hardly  had  this  visual  imagery  appeared  when 
it  gave  way  to  tactual  imagery  of  handling  soft,  spongy  buds.  I  paused  and 
tried  to  revive  the  visual  imagery  again  but  my  efforts  were  unsuccessful. 
The  buds  as  I  visualized  them  were  lying  on  something,  but  what  I  do  not  know 
for  there  was  no  visual  or  other  imagery  of  any  object  near  or  beneath  this 
visual  imagery;  I  could  obtain  no  visual  imagery  of  the  box  nor  of  the  ferns; 
what  might  have  been  a  box  was  a  very  faint,  shadow-like  form,  somewhat 
rectangular  in  shape  in  that  it  was  longer  than  it  was  wide,  but  the  object  had 
no  top  or  no  bottom.  (This  vague,  sketchy  and  fleeting  shadow  I  interpret  as 
a  visual  image  of  the  box.)  The  buds  lacked  detail;  I  saw  in  them  no  outline 
or  superposition  of  petal.  This  visual  imagery  had  no  setting  other  than 
tactual  and  kinaesthetic  imagery  which  tended  at  once  to  claim  the  focus  of 
my  attention ;  the  buds  and  shadow-like  box  appeared  in  a  fashion,  I  presume, 
as  a  sighted  person  might  v-isualize  something  back  of  his  head  in  the  visual 
'nothing'  that  is  there.  I  then  found  myself  trying  to  revive  this  shadow-like 
visual  imagery  of  the  box.  I  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  second  shadow,  this  time 
slightly  brown,  which  turned  to  a  color  darker  than  that  of  a  brown,  but 
which  I  cannot  label;  the  surface  of  this  shadow  presented  a  veneered  or 
glossy  appearance  and  was  motley  as  regards  light  and  shade.  This  shadow 
soon  dwindled  to  areas  which  would  have  been  the  edges  of  the  box  had  I 
touches  the  object  which  I  was  trying  to  visualize.  Then  there  appeared  visual 
memory  imagery  of  boxes  which  I  had  seen  as  a  child,  mingled  with  tactual 
imagery  of  running  my  fingers  along  the  edges  and  about  the  corners;  to- 
gether with  this  mixture  of  tactual  and  visual  imagery  there  reappeared  fleet- 
ing visual  imagery  of  white  buds  and  vague  shadow-like  forms  which  repre- 
sented leaves;  here,  in  connection  with  this  tactual  imagery,  the  visual  processes 

[15  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

tended  to  become  more  stable  and  persistent.  But  very  shortly  this  visual 
imagery  gave  way  entirely  to  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  processes.  [Tactual  and 
kinaesthetic  imagery  will  be  described  in  detail  in  a  later  section  of  this  mono- 
graph. It  is  interesting  to  note  that  observer  B  obtains  visual  imagery  with 
great  difficulty  and  that  only  when  ushered  into  consciousness  or  accompanied 
by  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  processes  is  his  visual  imagery  even  approximately 
stable  or  persistent.  Note  also  the  great  contrast  between  B's  visual  imagery 
and  that  of  A,  whose  visual  imagery  of  rosebuds  was  described  in  introspec- 
tion 4.] 

[Instructions:  "  Think  of  some  person  who  is  well  known  to  you;  try  to 
visualize  that  person  and  then  dictate  your  introspection."] 

6.  Observer  A.  "  (I  visualized  Professor  0.,  whom  I  have  not  seen  for 
four  years.)  First  there  appeared  visual  imagery  of  his  forehead  and  ears 
as  he'  stood  several  feet  away  and  facing  me ;  then  there  appeared  fleeting 
glimpses  of  his  nose  and  chin.  His  skin  was  colored  a  washed-out  yellowish 
tan  (the  color  of  his  voice);  in  this  imagery  there  was  no  continuity  of  feat- 
ures between  his  ears,  nose  and  chin;  between  these  isolated  portions  of  his 
head  was  the  setting  or  background  of  dark  grey  on  which  I  find  myself  hab- 
itually projecting  my  visual  imagery.  After  this  imagery  had  appeared  and 
was  still  lingering  in  consciousness  his  mouth  'filled  in'  between  the  nose  and 
chin;  1  then  saw  that  his  mouth  was  opened  slightly  as  if  he  were  speaking; 
then  beneath  his  chin  there  appeared  portions  of  his  neck,  particularly  the 
region  which  is  ordinarily  visible  above  a  white  collar  and  in  this  imagery  his 
'Adam's  apple'  stood  out  prominently.  While  all  of  this  imagery  appeared  in 
rapid  succession  and  with  a  relatively  high  degree  of  clearness  it  was  the 
general  shape  and  the  color  of  these  features  which  stood  out  rather  than  dis- 
tinctness of  outline  and  detail  of  shape.  The  imagery  appeared  diffuse  in  those 
regions  which  might  otherwise  form  definite  lines  or  edges.  ( [  suppose  in  this 
respect  my  visual  imagery  resembles  the  blurred  condition  of  a  composite 
photograph  made  from  exposures  of  several  people  on  the  same  plate.)  I 
found  it  impossible  to  connect  these  isolated  facial  features  into  one  contin- 
uous visual  image.  As  this  scattered  imagery  lingei'ed,  I  then  saw  teeth  show- 
ing in  the  slightly  opened  mouth;  the  teeth  which  stood  out  the  clearest  were 
particularly  those  lower  teeth  which  would  ordinarily  but  barely  show  when 
one  is  talking.  Curiously  the  lower  middle  teeth  were  indistinct;  the  teeth 
which  became  definitized  in  this  visual  image  wore  those  which  lie  on  either  side 
of  the  center.  My  attention  was  then  claimed  by  fleeting  a\iditory  imagery  of 
his  voice,  accompanied  by  focal  flashes  of  yolloAv  light— the  same  color  as  ap- 
peared in  my  visual  imagery  of  his  face  and  the  color  which  alw.ays  identifies 
for  me  the  quality  of  his  voice.  This  was  all  of  the  imagery  which  I  obtained 
at  first  and  which  followed  immediately  upon  my  hearing  the  instructions. 
This  imagery  appeared  in  space  at  a  distance  interpreted  to  be  about  14 
feet.  I  then  filled  out  in  visual  imagery,  still  in  the  yellow  color  of  his  voice, 
other  parts  of  his  body,  including  the  general  shap3  and  outline  of  his  body 
in  a  sitting  position.  Here  again  I  could  not  see  more  than  a  limited  portion 
of  him  at  any  one  time  but  as  I  shifted  my  line  of  regar.l  from  one  part  of 
this  vaguely  isolated  form  to  another  I  more  deflultely  pictured  his  shoulders, 
then  the  bottom  of  his  sack  coat  and  from  that  regioa  I  shifted  to  the  bottom 
of  his  trousers.  With  each  shift  of  visual  attention  I  was  aware  of  slight  eye 
movemont  together  with  tht  fact  that  :Tiy  oxati'iu  point  had  changed.  At  no 
time  (luring  the  entire  process  did  I  have  any  tactual  imagery  of  touching  him 
nor  any  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  feeling  of  his  clothes.  (The"  chief  features  of 
my  visual  imagery  consisted  of  their  patchy  character  with  areas  of  a  dark 
grey  setting  between  these  patches,  and  the  yallownoss  of  the  ijuagery.  I  have 
made  the  general  observation  with  respect  to  juy  visual  imagery  that  I  do  not 
tend  to  shift  from  visual  to  tactual  or  kinaesthetic  processes  unless  the  object 
which  I  am  visualizing  is  one  which  I  have  recently  handled  in  tactual-kinaes- 
thetic  fashion.)" 

[16] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

7.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  "(I  have  been  trying  for  several 
seconds  to  visualize  my  old  room-mate,  but  for  the  most  part  my  eflPorts  have 
been  unsatisfactory.)  There  first  appeared  very  indistinct  and  fleeting  visual 
imagery  of  his  forehead,  temples  and  eye-regions,  about  life-size  and  colored 
a  vague,  dim  white.  I  could  not  obtain  visual  imagery  of  all  of  these  features 
at  one  time;  I  could  see  no  hair,  no  neili  aud  no  ears  an>i  I  could  not  dis- 
tinguish the  color  of  his  ej'es.  In  every  instaHoi  the  imagery  was  photographic 
and  lacking  in  definiteness  of  form  and  outline.  The  only  features  which  ap- 
proached definiteness  were  the  facial  dimensions  of  the  temples.  (I  notice  that 
every  feature  which  I  have  been  visualizing  is  one  vvliich  I  have  observed  tac- 
tually.)  Along  with  the  above  imagery  I  had  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  images 
of  the  smoothness  and  texture  of  his  skin,  and  visual  imagery  now  became 
confused  with  this  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  awareness.  For  example,  my 
visual  images  of  his  nose  and  chin  were  confused  with  tactual-motor  images 
of  running  my  fingers  over  these  facial  features.  Then  upon  further  effort  I 
was  able  to  conjure  up  added  vague  and  flseling  visual  imagery  of  a  collar 
and  neck-tie,  but  T  am  not  certain  whether  this  is  imagery  which  over  func- 
tioned in  connection  with  memories  of  my  room  mate.  The  collar  is  white  but 
it  is  only  a  mere  suggestion  of  whiteness  in  the  form  of  a  streak  localized  under 
a  similarly  fleeting  chin.  I  saw  no  color  in  the  tie,  for  it  was  merely  a  shadow- 
form,  broader  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  None  of  this  visual  imagery  ap- 
peared in  a  visual  setting  and  while  it  was  localized  in  space  rather  close  to  me 
the  setting  was  entirely  tactual  and  kinaesthetic." 

[Instructions:  Visualize  some  familiar  scene  or  lan<lscajie.  j 
8.  Observer  A.  "(I  have  visualized  a  certain  turn  in  a  country  road  which 
I  saw  in  childhood  and  have  not  visited  since  that  time.)  LooininJ  up  before 
me  in  space  and  in  what  appeared  to  me  to  be  normal  dimensions  v.as  a  road 
which  extended  upward  over  a  very  steep  grade  and  through  a  deep  cut.  I 
first  saw  the  flat  road  at  my  feet,  where  the  wagon  tracks  in  the  sand  stood 
out  as  the  most  prominent  features;  then  my  attention  shifted,  visually,  to  the 
walls  of  the  cut,  which  were  about  shoulder-high;  here  very  little  detail  stood 
out,  for  I  saw  only  the  smooth  grey  walls  of  sandstone,  with  here  and  there  a 
shadow  or  broken  place  in  the  hanks,  represented  by  areas  or  stre'ikt?  .>f  darker 
grey.  (This  I  interpreted  as  meaning  the  places  in  the  banks  where  the  frost 
had  broken  off  some  of  the  rock.)  I  saw  no  strata  nor  any  details  of  individual 
pieces  of  rock;  I  saw  no  details  of  gravel  or  of  vegetative  growth  en  the  sides 
of  these  walls.  The  entire  visual  image,  so  far,  was  a  washed  grey,  but  the 
scene  ajjpeared  in  its  proper  perspective,  i.  e.,  I  saw  the  road  becoming  smaller 
and  smaller  as  it  a])j)roached  the  top  of  the  cut  and  noticed  the  walls  of  the 
cut  coming  closer  and  closer  together  the  farther  away  I  visualized  them. 
The  sand  of  the  road  and  the  walls  of  the  cut  were  the  same  color — a  grey, 
slightly  tinged  with  yellow.  Then  there  developed,  on  each  side  of  the  cut, 
visual  imagery-  of  scrub  oaks  with  dead  autumn  leaves  hanging  from  the  tips 
of  the  branches;  there  then  appeared  autumn  leaves  scatt'-red  oser  the  ground 
beneath  the  trees.  The  ui)permost  portions  of  the  trees  faded  into  nothing.  I 
saw  no  line  or  skyline.  .Vs  this  iniagory  persisted  and  I  found  my  visual  at- 
tention wandering  from  one  deUiil  to  another,  I  nolicotl  that  it  was  tri-dimen- 
tional,  i.e.,  I  saw  ])arts  of  trees  extending  back  'iini  bv^hind  the  trees  which 
were  in  front.  The  leaves  on  some  of  the  nearer  trees  now  developed  here  and 
there  into  relatively  clear-cut  forms  and  outlines,  but  I  still  visualized  the 
distant  loaves  as  more  dashes  or  'daubs'  of  brown.  The  leaves  on  the  ground 
remained,  throughout,  areas  of  mottled  or  speckled  brown  with  definite  outlines 
of  only  one  or  two  individual  leaves  here  and  there.  In  each  instance  I  found 
that  the  definitely  outlined  leaves  were  those  upon  which  I  was  directly  fixating 
my  visual  line  of  regard.  As  to  the  trunks,  I  visualized  their  general  form  and 
size  but  was  not  aware  of  minute  detail  of  bark  or  color.  (I  can,  however, 
construct  visual  imagery  of  tree  trunks  in  which  there  appears  a  wealth  of  de- 
tail even  to  the  nature  of  the  bark  and  various  vegetative  growths  such  as 
moss  and  lichens.)  " 

[17  1 


The  Synaesthesiu  of  a  Blind  Subject 

9.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  "(I  visualized  a  scene  at  Cripple 
Creek,  where  I  lived  as  a  boy  before  my  accident.)  I  first  obtained  a  very 
sketchy  visual  image  of  the  first  school  which  I  attended  and  of  the  Catholic 
church  which  stood  behind  it.  The  only  distinct  features  of  this  imagery  con- 
sisted of  the  bronze  railing  around  the  roof  of  the  school  building  and  the 
windows  of  the  upper  story,  in  front,  as  one  would  view  them  when  standing 
in  the  street  below.  Accompanying  this  visual  imagery  was  very  distinct  kin- 
aesthetic  imagery  of  eye-movement  and  strain  of  eye  fixation  upon  the  object 
visualized.  There  then  appeared  in  very  sketchy  and  fleeting  fashion  visual 
imagery  of  a  dark,  green  mountain  range  which  loomed  up  in  the  background 
beyond  the  school,  and  beyond  the  mountain  was  a  faint  suggestion  of  blue 
sky.  All  of  this  latter  imagery  was  momentary  and  appeared  like  a  tachisto- 
scopic  flash  and  was  gone  again.  I  found  that  I  could  revive  it  only  by  con- 
centrating my  visual  attention  again  upon  the  bronze  railing  of  the  school- 
house.  Thereafter  further  attempts  to  retain  this  visual  imagery  resulted  only 
in  masses  of  kinaesthctic  and  tactual  imagery.  (I  find  that  I  am  totally  unable 
to  visualize  a  neck-tie  or  other  object  either  in  this  green  or  in  this  blue  which 
momentarily  appeared  in  my  visual  imagery.  The  colors  have  vanished  and 
I  cannot  reinstate  them.)  " 

[Instructions:      Visualize  a  printed  word.] 

10.  Observer  A.  "(I  visualized  the  word  'the.')  I  was  at  once  able  to 
construct  fairly  ratisfactory  visual  imagery  of  the  three  letters,  t,  h,  and  e,  in 
print.  They  were  not,  however,  printed  upon  any  particular  material  or  sur- 
face; they  appeared  in  a  visual  setting  consisting  of  that  neutral  grey  back- 
ground which  HO  often  surrounds  my  visual  imagery.  The  't'  was  a  small  let- 
ter, not  a  capital,  the  form  and  outline  of  which  were  very  distinct,  and  were 
colored  a  reddish  brown  of  only  a  poor  saturation — the  same  reddish  brown 
which  always  means  't.'  The  'h'  lay  on  the  same  background  as  the  't'  and 
next  to  the  't'  on  its  right,  but  this  imagery  was  so  faint  as  almost  to  merge 
into  the  grey  of  the  visual  setting;  the  form  or  outline  of  the  *h'  was  equally 
as  indistinct  as  the  color.  Then  I  very  clearly  visualized  the  *e'  lying  just  to 
the  right  of  the  *  h ' ;  it  was  the  most  distinct  of  all  the  letters  and  was  like- 
wise the  most  brilliantly  colored.  In  fact,  the  color  was  the  most  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  'e'  and  that  feature  which  dominated  consciousness  when  I  was 
attending  to  the  letter.  The  exact  shape  of  the  curved  lines  which  constituted 
the  'e'  was  the  least  clear  of  any  of  its  features.  (The  color  and  brightness  of 
the  letters  were  the  same  as  they  always  appear  whenever  I  have  verbal  imagery 
or  perceive  these  letters  in  any  fashion.)  After  this  imagery  appeared  I  then 
set  about  attempting  to  visualize  these  letters  printed  in  black  ink.  I  found 
that  I  could  thus  visualize  them  in  the  type  which  is  used  in  ai  child's  primer; 
the  letters  resembled  those  which  are  emphasized  in  heavier  print  in  order  to 
represent  the  silent  letters  of  a  word.  These  letters  appeared  at  about  a  reading 
distance  from  me.  Hovering  about  the  'E, '  which  was  the  least  clear  of  any  of 
this  visual  imagery,  was  a  halo  of  the  same  bright  color  which  appeared  in  my 
previous  visual  imagery  of  that  letter ;  this  color  identified  the  letter  as  '  E ' ; 
the  printed  '  E '  looked  as  if  the  surface  on  which  it  was  printed  had  slipped 
just  as  the  '  E '  was  being  stamped  upon  that  surface — it  was  blurred  and  the 
outlines  of  the  letter  were  ragged.  The  form  and  outline  of  the  'T'  stood  out 
fairly  plainly  in  this  latter  visual  imagery  but  were  tinged  with  the  same  color 
as  appeared  in  my  previous  imagery.  The  'H'  was  again  very  indistinct  and 
tended  to  merge,  as  before,  into  the  grey  setting.  (The  color  for  'H'  closely 
resembles  the  grey  of  the  visual  setting,  which  explains  why  it  is  not  clearly 
distinguishable  from  the  background.)  The  setting  for  this  latter  imagery  was, 
identical  with  the  previous  visual  background.  The  longer  the  imagery  per-,' 
sisted,  the  more  the  form  and  outline  of  the  letters  tended  to  give  way  to  inj 
creasing  clearness  in  the  colors  which  aways  stand  for  these  letters.  I  foun  ' 
it  impossible  to  make  the  letters  remain  black." 

[18] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

11.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  "(After  trying  for  some  time  to 
follow  the  instructions  I  reported  that  I  could  not  visualize  printed  words.) 
Upon  trying  for  some  time  to  fulfill  the  instructions  I  found  that  my  efforts 
resulted  only  in  obtaining  tactual-kinaesthetic  imagery  with  only  vague  sug- 
gestions now  and  then  of  visual  imagery  in  connection  with  a  visual-kinaesthetic 
and  schematic  spacial  image.  I  found  myself  having  a  wealth  of  tactual-motor 
imagery  of  writing  my  name  in  script,  which'  I  often  practice  in  order  not  to 
forget  it.  If  I  eliminate  this  tactual-motor  imagery  I  am  able  to  obtain  vague, 
fleeting  schematic  visual-manual  motor  imagery  of  my  name  as  if  it  were  being 
written  by  an  invisible  hand.  I  also  find  imagery  with  incipient  eye-movement 
of  following  what  I  remember,  vaguely,  to  be  the  general  shape  of  the  letters, 
but  I  am  unable  to  visualize  anything  where  the  invisible  pencil  has  just 
traversed — no  pencil,  no  hand,  nothing  except  the  spacial  and  schematic  move- 
ment of  tracing  the  form  of  the  letters.  I  found  that  I  could  visualize  a  vague 
point  or  spot  along  the  outline  of  the  letter,  which  moved  continuously  over  the 
letter,  but  the  space  over  which  the  moving  point  had  just  traversed  disappeared 
as  the  point  moved  on  to  another  position.  Thus  the  letter  disappeared  as  fast 
as  it  was  formed.  All  of  my  imagery  was  tactual  or  motor  except  the  spacial 
representation  of  a  point  along  the  letter  as  it  was  being  written.  Peculiarly, 
this  point  did  not  move  upon  a  visualized  surface;  it  merely  moved,  that  is  all. 
(Thus  I  fear  that  my  visual  imagery  of  letters  is  but  a  visual-kinaesthetic- 
schema.)  " 

[Instructions:     Visualize  a  cube.] 

12.  Observer  A.  "  I  was  able  to  distinctly  visualize  a  cube,  the  edges  of 
which  were  about  three  inches  long;  it  was  localized  in  space,  about  at  arm's 
length,  and  directly  in  front  of  me;  in  this  imagery  I  saw  at  one  glance  the 
surfaces  which  are  ordinarily  visible  when  one  corner — here  an  upper  corner — 
is  directly  in  front.  My  line  of  regard  was  fixated  upon  this  corner.  Extend- 
ing definitely  in  three  different  planes  were  the  upper  surface  of  the  cube,  a 
more  or  less  broadside  view  of  the  front  surface,  and  the  diamond-shaped  right 
side,  appearing  in  perspective.  Of  these  three  surfaces  the  top  was  the  clear- 
est. From  the  color  of  the  cube  I  interpreted  that  it  was  a  light  yellow  block 
of  wood  which  I  was  visualizing.  The  surfaces  were  smooth ;  all  four  edges 
of  the  top  were  visible  but  the  edges  of  the  front  and  side  surfaces  were  less 
distinct.  The  object  was  of  uniform  color  and  brightne.ss  throughout  except 
at  the  juncture  of  two  planes  where  the  edge  was  represented  by  a  shadowy  line 
of  darkened  wood  color  rather  than  by  clear-cut,  sharp  corners.  I  noticed  that 
no  other  form  of  imagery  other  than  motor  imagery  of  eye-movement  tended  to 
appear;  I  had  no  tactual  or  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  handling  the  cube. 
(Under  instructions  to  visualize  an  object  which  I  have  not  inspected  tactual- 
motor  fashion  recently,  I  find  my  attention  almost  wholly  absorbed  in  visual 
and  eye-motor  experiences  and  with  the  shape,  form,  and  color  quality  of  the 
imagery. ) " 

13.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  "I  found  myself  tending  to  visualize 
a  die.  There  appeared  faint,  fleeting  and  very  schematic  visual  imagery  of 
a  small,  cube-like  form,  throe  sides  of  which,  including  the  top,  were  visible. 
The  sides  were  light — the  quality  of  a  very  light  and  dim  grey,  I  think;  the 
edges  were  darker.  There  was  no  visual  setting;  the  object  appeared  in  space 
before  me  but  with  nothing  visualized  around  it,  and  on  the  faces  of  the  cube 
there  appeared  faint,  pencil-like  dots  which  represented  the  spots  on  the  lie; 
these  spots  were  mere  j)oints  of  brightness  and  stood  out  as  specks  a  little 
darker  than  the  adjacent  surface.  I  could  not  count  the  spots  for  they  were 
not  clear  enough  nor  were  they  definitely  distributed,  but  together  with  this 
visual  imagery  I  found  myself  saying  in  verbal  imagery,  'one,  six,  two,  five,' 
etc." 

[Instructions:  "I  am  going  to  read  you  a  certain  selection  of  prose.  Attend 
to  this  reading  as  if  you  were  going  to  be  called  upon  later  to  recall  what  was 
read  to  you  and  attempt  to  translate  the  meaning  of  the  passage  as  far  as 

[19] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

possible  into  visual  imagery.  After  I  have  finished  the  reading  begin  at  once  to 
introspect  particularly  upon  the  visual  imagery  which  was  aroused  while  you 
listened.  Do  not  make  such  «n  effort  to  visualize  the  meaning  of  the  passage, 
however,  as  will  distract  from  following  its  discourse..    Eeady."] 

The  passage  was  from  Parkman's  "  Oregon  Trail,"  Standard  English 
(Classics  eilition,  edited  by  W.  E.  Leonard  and  published  by  Ginn  and  Co., 
and  is  found  on  page  56,  lines  5-23.    The  passage  is  as  follows: 

"A  low,  undulating  line  of  sandhills  bounded  the  horizon  before  us.  That 
day  we  rode  ten  hours,  and  it  was  dusk  before  we  entered  the  hollows  and 
gorges  of  these  gloomy  little  hills.  At  length  we  gained  the  summit  and  the 
long-expected  valley  of  the  Platte  lay  before  us.  We  all  drew  rein  and  sat 
joyfully  looking  down  upon  the  prospect.  It  was  right  welcome;  strange,  too, 
"and  striking  to  the  imagination,  and  yet  it  had  not  one  picturesque  or  beauti- 
ful feature;  nor  had  it  any  features  of  grandeur  other  than  its  vast  extent,  its 
solitude  and  its  wildness.  For  league  after  league  a  plain  as  level  as  a  lake 
was  outs[)read  beneath  us;  here  and  there  the  Platte,  divided  into  a  dozen 
thread-like  sluices,  was  traversing  it,  and  an  occasional  clump  of  woods,  rising 
in  the  midst  like  a  shadowy  island,  relieved  the  monotony  of  the  waste.  No 
living  creature  was  moving  throughout  the  vast  landscape,  except  the  lizards 
that  darted  over  the  sand  and  through  the  rank  grass  and  prickly  pears  at 
our  feet."] 

14.  Observer  A.  "  1  was  first  aware  of  visual  imagery  of  the  sand  hills, 
looming  up  one  behind  the  other  like  a  series  of  terraces,  the  hills  in  the  dis- 
tance rising  up  behind  those  in  the  foreground.  All  were  colored  a  very  faint 
wanhed-out  yellow,  like  the  sands  of  the  western  deserts,  but  possessed  no  detail; 
they  were  colored  as  if  painted  by  a  thin  wash  of  water-color  paint.  Th.;  only 
variations  in  this  color  appeared  along  the  ridges  of  hills  and  along  the  sides 
of  higher  ridges  behind,  thus  marking  off  in  my  visual  imagery  in  terms  of  a 
shadow  the  place  where  the  summits  of  the  nearer  hills  left  off  and  the  slopes  of 
the  hills  farther  back  commenced,  or  loomed  into  view.  This  imagery  lingered  m 
consciousness  but  a  brief  moment  and  then  the  scene  changed.  T  found  myself 
standing  on  top  of  one  of  these  foothills;  portions  of  ground  were  visualized 
at  my  feet,  in  this  same  color,  while  off  in  front  of  me  and  extending  as  far  as  I 
could  see,  was  a  visualized  plain.  The  plain  was  colored  much  as  were  the  hills 
and  here  again,  in  the  imagery,  were  no  details — merely  a  broad  expanse  of  sur- 
face— except  where  I  visualized  the  Platte  river  winding  hither  and  thither,  be- 
coming smaller  as  it  extended  farther  and  farther  into  the  distance.  Then  for 
a  brief  moment  I  had  visual  imagery  of  nearer  views  of  the  Platte.  First  there 
appeared  visual  imagery  of  the  river  as  jue  miL'ht  see  it  froju  a  train  as  one 
travels  along  near  the  bank.  (This  imagery,  I  think,  is  a  vague  memory  image 
of  a  view  I  once  obtained  of  this  river  when  on  my  way  west  years  ago.) 
In  this  image  I  saw  about  as  much  as  one  would  ordinarily  see  from  a  point  of 
view  several  feet  away  and  slightly  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  banks.  The 
water  was  not  colored  but  had  a  white  or  silvery  glare  as  if  brilliant  sunlight 
were  being  reflected  from  its  surface.  The  water  seemed  motionless  at  first; 
in  fact,  there  was  no  motion  in  the  imagery  beyond  a  slight  suggestion  of  cur- 
rents of  water  which  later  appeared  when  I  heard  the  word  'sluices.'  At  this 
juncture  I  had  visual  imagery  of  the  Platte  dividing  into  several  sluices  and  at 
the  nearest  fork  there  appeared  streaky-like  shadows  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
which  represented  to  me  the  dividing  currents.  The  scene  then  changed  again, 
I  visualized  hill  after  hill,  passing  me  as  if  I  were  being  silently  carried  through 
space  at  a  terrific  speed;  after  several  hills  had  passed  I  then  visualized  a 
broad,  flat,  0{)en  area  passing  by;  then  would  come  a  long,  undulating  ridge, 
colored  as  the  foothills  which  I  saw  at  first.  This  scene  would  give  way  to  an- 
other broad,  flat  area  of  plain  where  nothing  was  visible  except  the  yellowish- 
grey  sand,  smooth  and  unvaried  by  any  detail.  The  next  imagery  of  which  I 
was  aware  consisted  of  visualized  lizards  darting  across  the  sand  at  my  feet,  as 
if  I  were  standing  on  the  open  plains.     These  lizards  appeared  as  small,  dark, 

[20  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

oblong  forms,  about  four  inches  in  length  and  in  each  my  Mne  of  regard  was 
centered  upon  the  region  of  the  hind  legs  which  were  represented  in  my  imagery 
by  short  and  slender  extensions  of  the  dark  brown  oblong  forms.  Between  these 
slender  extensions  was  a  long  slender  streak,  almost  black,  which  represented  a 
tail.  Then  I  found  myself  visualizing  tiny  gusts  of  sand  thrown  up  backwards 
and  sidewise  by  the  hind  feet  of  the  lizards  as  they  scurried  over  the  ground. 
I  had  several  visual  images  of  this  sort,  some  of  which  were  localized  near  me 
and  others  of  which  were  projected  off  in  the  distance,  on  the  ground,  for  several 
feet.  These  little  gusts  of  sand  would  appear  first  on  one  side.  tl)en  on  another, 
as  if  I  were  running  upon  these  little  animals  while  travelling  across  the  plains, 
although  I  was  not  aware  of  imagery  of  walking  or  of  otherwise  moving,  my- 
self. Once  I  fleetingly  visualized  a  clump  of  trees  off  in  the  distance,  in  a  desert 
setting,  but  here  the  imagery  lacked  detail.  When  I  heard  the  words  'prickly 
pears'  I  at  once  had  visual  imagery  of  small,  cactus-like  plants,  standing  up 
about  18  inches  high  and  growing  up  from  the  smooth,  yellowish  sand.  This 
imagery  included  a  greenish-grey  stalk  with  spines  protruding  here  and  there 
of  lighter  color  but  of  the  same  hue;  I  saw  no  branches,  leaves  or  flowers.  Dur- 
ing the  entire  reading  I  had  no  tactual  or  kinaesthetic  imagery  beyond  a  slight 
awareness  of  eye-movement  with  the  rapid  shifts  of  visual  attention  from  one 
object  or  position  in  my  visual  field  to  another.  I  saw  no  men,  horses,  or 
other  objects. ' ' 

15.  Observer  B.  [Same  instructions.]  "As  the  selection  was  being  read 
I  was  first  aware  of  the  stillness  and  the  peace  portrayed  by  the  situation. 
This  awareness  consisted,  I  think,  of  an  interpretation  from  total  absence  of 
tactual,  motor  or  auditory  imagery.  Then  I  became  aware,  in  terms  of  sche- 
matic visual-motor  imagery,  of  the  foothills  near  me.  While  I  did  not  see  the 
hills  in  this  imagery,  this  awareness  consisted  of  vague  shadow-like  lines  with 
no  visual  setting,  which  shot  hither  and  thither  through  space  before  me,  and 
which  were  accompanied  by  marked  tendencies  for  my  line  of  regard  to  fol- 
low them.  Here  I  was  distinctly  conscious  of  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  eye- 
movement  with  incipient  motions  in  my  eyes.  There  also  occurred  incipient 
tendencies  to  follow  these  shifting  lines  with  movements  of  my  head.  I  then 
had  a  diffuse  tactual  image  of  coolness  upon  my  face.  Then  I  was  aware  of 
a  peculiar  complex  which  I  interpret  as  a  consciousness  of  romantic  grandeur, 
depicted  by  the  passage.  This  consisted  of  tendencies  to  breath  more  slowly 
and  deeply,  of  a  peculiar  tenseness  about  the  region  of  my  diaphragm,  to- 
gether with  tactual  imagery  of  the  warmth  of  the  sun  upon  my  face  and  back 
and  faint  pressure  imagery  of  a  breeze  blowing  against  my  face.  These  ex- 
periences gave  way  to  a  wealth  of  tactual  and  motor  imagery  of  riding  a 
horse  across  the  plains  and  over  the  hills.  I  had  very  persistent  and  clear 
kinaesthetic  imagery  together  with  incipient  bodily  swaying  movements  of 
balancing  myself  in  the  saddle  as  the  horse  seemed  to  bound  up  a  steep  grade 
or  now  across  a  rough  section  on  level  ground.  Then  T  would  become  momen- 
tarily absorbed  in  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  rough  jolts  from  a  sudilen  change 
in  the  horse's  stride  or  from  an  unsually  long  jump  across,  perhaps,  a  stream. 
There  then  aj>peared  a  wealth  of  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  shifting 
my  position  in  the  saddle;  auditor^'  imagery  of  the  crackling  of  dry  grass 
beneath  the  horse's  feet;  incipient  tensions  in  my  legs  as  if  I  were  pressing 
my  feet  against  the  stirrups;  then  I  would  have  tactual  and  kinaesthetic 
imagery  of  suddenly  pulling  upon  the  reins,  localized  in  my  hands,  arms  and 
shoulders.  Also  I  had  tactual  and  motor  imagery  of  the  rhythmic  bodily  move- 
ments of  trotting,  of  galloping,  and  of  walking.  Then  1  had  tactual  imagery 
of  my  shirt  as  if  it  were  being  blown  tightly  against  my  body  by  the  wind; 
then  came  auditory  imagery  of  the  panting  of  the  horse;  auditory  imagery  of 
the  !-piasliing  of  its  feet  as  we  passeil  over  boggy  places;  then,  later.  I  had 
tactual  imagery,  localized  at  the  bottoms  of  my  feet,  of  stepping  upon  prickly 
pears,  with  cutaneous  and  gustatory  imagery  of  handling  and  tasting  the 
cactus.     All  of  these  experiences  were  intermingled  with  a  wealth  of  affective 

[21] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

and  organic  states  consisting  of  circulatory,  respiratory  and  other  muscular 
changes.  These  latter  processes  seemed  to  constitute  an  awareness  of  the 
expansive  openness  about  me.  In  no  instance,  beyond  the  faint  suggestion  at 
first,  did  I  have  any  sign  of  visual  imagery." 

The  following  introspection  from  observer  A  is  here  introduced 
in  order  to  show  the  influence  of  tactual  and  motor  processes  in 
his  imagery  of  objects  recently  handled. 

[Instructions:  Visualize  the  rifle  which  I  showed  you  the  early  part  of  the 
morning.     Then  give  me  a  detailed  introspection  on  the  imagery  involved.] 

16.  Observer  A.  "As  soon  as  the  experimenter  said  'rifle'  I  was  aware  of 
visual  imagery  of  that  section  of  the  rifle  which  surrounds  the  hammer,  the 
breech  and  the  trigger,  also  back  along  the  grip  of  the  rifle  as  far  as  the 
peep-sight  and  ahead  on  the  rifle  as  far  as  the  opening  from  which  the  cart- 
ridge is  extracted  by  an  automatic  device.  This  imagery  was  localized  in  the 
xlirection  of  my  knees  as  if  the  visualized  object  were  resting  across  them, 
with  the  barrel  pointing  to  the  left.  Then  my  attention  flitted  momentarily 
to  the  under  side  of  the  rifle  where  I  visualized  the  hole  and  spring-shutter 
through  which  one  fills  the  chamber.  This  visual  imagery  was  more  stable 
although,  I  think,  no  clearer  than  visual  imagery  which  I  have  described  in 
previous  sittings.  I  saw  at  one  glance  the  two  blocks  at  the  lock  in  the  breech, 
the  hammer,  part  of  the  iron  ring  beneath  the  trigger  and  the  trigger  itself. 
Then  there  appeared,  as  this  imagery  persisted,  tactual  and  motor  imagery  of 
placing  my  finger  through  the  lever  behind  the  trigger  and  my  thumb  upon 
the  hammer;  in  this  latter  imagery  the  feature  which  stood  out  most  promin- 
ently was  the  quality  of  strain  involved  in  pressing  the  hammer  back  and  down, 
with  my  thumb,  as  if  in  the  act  of  cocking  the  rifle.  This  quality  was  localized 
both  in  my  thumb  and  wrist.  But  no  sooner  was  I  aware  of  this  motor  im- 
agery when  I  found  my  attention  shifting  from  kinaesthetic  qualities  to  visual 
associates  which  always  accompany  my  kinaesthetic  imagery.  These  latter 
consisted  of  black  streaks  and  areas  localized  in  my  finger  and  thumb,  also 
in  my  wrist,  representing  the  muscular  strain.  Then  this  visual  imagery 
changed  to  further  visualizations  of  my  finger  and  thumb  in  their  positions 
as  just  described  and  here  it  was  the  musculature  itself  and  not  the  synaesthe- 
tic  process  which  was  present  in  terms  of  visual  processes.  The  portion  of  the 
barrel  which  I  first  saw  was  colored  the  quality  of  blue  steel ;  the  hammer  was 
somewhat  the  same  color  but  lighter  while  the  tip  of  the  peep-sight  was  almost 
white.  I  did  not  visualize  the  wood-stock  and  at  no  time  did  I  have  tactual 
imagery  of  the  coldness  of  the  metal  or  of  pressure  from  gripping  the  rifle. 
(This  visual  imagery  differs  from  my  imagery  of  objects  which  I  have  not 
handled  recently  in  that  it  is  not  broken  up  into  disconnected  sections  or 
patches  as  is  true  of  the  former  where  kinaesthetic  processes  are  lacking. 
This  observation  confirms  many  others  which  I  have  made  in  the  past.)  " 

t?.  Summary  of  iyitrospective  data  on  visual  imagery. 

Observer  A.  Under  the  instructions  to  visualize  various  situa- 
tions or  objects,  observer  A  readily  experienced  combinations  and 
successions  of  visual  imagery  to  the  exclusion  of  practically  every 
other  type  of  imagery  with  the  exception  of  the  kinaesthetic.  This 
visual  imagery  was  invariably  rich  in  color  or  brightness  qualities 
but  lacked  other  details  such  as  definiteness  of  outline  and  quantity 
of  items  visualized.     As  far  as  color  and  brightness  were  concerned 

r22i 


The  Syn^esthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

his  visual  imagery  seemed  to  possess  such  persistence  and  clear- 
ness as  characterize  similar  imagery  in  a  good  visualizer.  On  the 
other  hand  A's  visual  imagery  tended  to  be  photographic;  and 
where  large  objects  were  visualized,  or  where  extensive  scenes 
were  imagined,  hills,  deserts,  plains,  rivers,  rocks,  trees  and  the 
like  appeared  "washed"  with  color.  The  shapes  and  outlines  of 
objects  were  suggested  by  variations  in  quality  or  shade  of  color 
and  brightness  rather  than  by  edges  or  lines. 

Another  prominent  feature  of  A's  visual  imagery  consisted  of 
its  patchy  or  disconnected  character.  Images,  varied  in  number 
and  in  the  objects  which  they  represented,  appeared  in  conscious- 
ness either  in  groups  or  in  rapid  successions  but  in  either  case 
this  imagery  tended  to  be  discontinuous  and  to  be  separated  by 
areas  of  a  dark  grey  neutral  background.  For  example  A  described 
visual  imagery  of  rose-buds,  ferns,  a  box,  various  parts  of  the 
human  face  or  figure,  various  portions  of  a  landscape,  but  each 
detail  or  each  individual  object  tended  to  be  separated  from  its 
neighbor  by  an  indistinct  and  almost  indescribable  "space"  or  by 
an  area  of  greyish  visual  setting.  In  the  same  fashion  successions 
of  visual  imagery  were  broken  up  by  short  intervals  in  which  A 
was  conscious  either  of  this  grey  visual  setting  or  of  other  types 
of  imagery  such  as  tactual  and  kinaesthetic.  One  visual  image  or 
short  succession  of  visual  images  would  vanish  before  the  succeeding 
group  of  visual  images  would  appear,  the  reagent 's  attention  mean- 
while being  occupied  by  other  imagery,  chiefly  this  visual  setting. 
This  state  of  affairs  is  not  different,  perhaps,  from  the  behavior 
of  visual  imagery  in  a  sighted  person.  For  when  one  experiences 
successions  of  visual  processes  either  sensory  or  imaginal  he  will 
undoubtedly  discover  that  when  one  visual  image  fades  away  be- 
fore the  next  image  appears,  his  attention,  in  the  interim,  may  be 
occupied  by  a  "blackness"  of  indefinitely^  visualized  space. 

There  are  instances,  however,  when  observer  A  is  able  to  ex- 
perience long  trains  of  visual  images  in  which  one  image  merges 
without  a  break  into  its  successor.  Such  instances,  however,  are 
rare  except  when  synaesthetic  phenomena  are  functioning,  or  when 
visual  imagery  constitutes  a  temporary  schema  or  form,  resembling, 
in  character,  a  number  form.  Again,  in  case  tactual  or  kinaes- 
thetic processes  accompany  the  visual  imagery,  the  latter  become 
less  patchy  and  more  persistent  or  stable.     These  facts  are  siguifi- 

[23  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

cant  in  connection  with  the  functioning  of  synaesthetic  phenomena 
for  the  reason  that  they  demonstrate  the  striking  difference  be- 
tween the  behavior  of  visual  imagery  of  objects  or  scenes  as  such 
and  the  behavior  of  that  visual  imagery  which  functions  in  A's 
synaesthetic  processes.  The  latter  are  differentiated  from  the 
former,  as  we  shall  observe  later,  by  greater  persistence,  stability, 
by  a  stereotyped  character  which  is  not  found  in  "normal"  visual 
imagery,  and  by  their  peculiar  functioning  in  the  development  of 
meaning. 

S3'naesthetic  phenomena  appeared  in  connection  with  A's  visual 
imagery  of  a  person  whom  he  had  not  met  for  several  years,  in 
connection  with  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  handling  a  rifle  and  in 
connection  with  visual  imagery  of  printed  words  or  letters.  It  is 
of  striking  significance  that  the  patchy  visual  imagery  of  professor 
O's  ears,  forehead,  chin,  and  clothes  (see  introspection  6)  was 
colored  by  the  same  yellow  which  is  always  aroused  when  pro- 
fessor O's  voice  is  heard.  In  the  winter  of  1914  observer  A  heard 
his  voice  for  the  first  time  and  it  at  once  assumed  this  peculiar 
yellowish-buff  color.  Auditory  imagery  of  his  voice  and  visual 
imagery  of  liiin  at  once  took  on  this  same  quality  of  yellov.'.  In 
the  winter  of  1917  this  color  was  described  by  observer  A  as  a  faded 
orange-yellow ;  during  the  winter  of  1919  this  color  was  described 
as  a  light  brownish  yellow  and  at  the  present  writing  this  color  is 
a  "washed-out  yellowish  tan."  Every  form  of  imagery  pertaining 
to  professor  0  is  affected  by  this  synaesthesia  and  the  imagery 
itself,  if  wholly  visual,  is  colored  by  this  yellow.  Auditory  imagery 
of  professor  O's  footsteps  are  invariably  yellow;  if  A  is  thinking 
of  a  book  which  0  lias  written  either  the  visual  imagery  of  the 
book  itself  or  the  background  on  which  the  book  is  visualized  takes 
on  this  same  quality  of  yellow.  Observer  A  has  a  century  form 
which  he  constantly  uses  in  connection  with  historical  dates  or 
epochs.  A  certain  section  of  this  century  form,  representing  a 
period  of  time  extending  from  the  year  55  B.  C.  to  the  Saxon  period 
in  English  history,  turned  yellow  as  a  result  of  A's  having  studied 
English  history  under  this  professor.  Previous  to  taking  this  his- 
tory course  with  professor  0  the  section  in  A's  century  form,  just 
referred  to,  was  white.  In  like  manner  all  memory  imagery  having 
to  do  with  courses  taken  under  professor  0  is  affected  by  this  same 

[24  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

yellow.  The  following  quotation  from  observer  A's  recall  of  cer- 
tain facts  concerning  Gregory,  a  missionary'  to  England,  illustrates 
the  point  in  question. 

16.  Observer  A.  "(If  I  were  asked  about  Gregory,  a  certain  missionary 
to  England,  and  about  his  nationality  and  the  time  during  which  he  visited 
England,  my  synaesthetic  imagery  would  function  as  follows:)  There  first 
appears,  in  response  to  the  verbal  image  of  'Gregory'  a  black  splotch  in  thQ 
center  of  my  field  of  vision;  this  blackness  means  'Gregory,'  while  sur- 
rounding this  black  splotch  there  appears  a  band  of  yellow  which  means  that 
I  studied  about  Gregory  in  a  course  under  professor  0.  The  black  informs  me 
that  the  person  represented  is  not  only  Gregory  but  that  this  person  was  either 
a  Roman  or  an  Italian.  The  yellow  has  come  to  mean,  also,  that  Gregory  is 
associated  with  England  during  the  Saxon  period.  Thus,  in  order  to  place 
Grego;-y  in  the  Saxon  period  of  English  history  it  is  only  necessary  for  me  to 
call  up  my  century  form  whereupon  the  black  splotch  which  means  'Gregory* 
at  once  assumes  a  position  in  the  form  corresponding  to  a  date  falling  some- 
where in  the  middle  of  the  eight  centurj'.  On  both  sides  of  the  black  splotch 
there  remains  the  yellow  of  professor  0.  (This  is  a  fair  test  of  the  functioning 
of  my  'professor-O. -yellow'  for  I  have  not  studied  or  reviewed  my  English 
history  ror  several  months.  What  I  can  remember  about  Gregory  is  entirely 
represented  in  the  behavior  of  the  colors  as  described.)  " 

In  the  second  instance — that  of  visual  imagery  of  letters — we 
find  a  similar  state  of  affairs.  For  example,  the  visual  image  of 
"t"  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  printed  "t"  but  its  shape  or  form 
was  indistinct.  The  distinct  feature  of  the  "t"  was  its  reddish- 
brown  color,  and  it  was  upon  this  color  which  observer  A's  atten- 
tion was  directed  in  the  image.  Similarly,  the  "h"  lacked  defi- 
niteness  of  shape  or  form  but  the  important  feature  of  the  image 
consisted  of  its  greyish  brightness  which  very  nearly  blended  with 
the  visual  setting  upon  which  the  "h"  was  projected.  The  shape 
and  form  of  the  "e"  were  also  vaguely  visualized  but  the  light, 
dull  white  of  the  "e"  stood  out  in  focal  attention.  In  1917  A  de- 
scribed the  color  of  "t"  as  a  dark  chocolate  brown;  in  1919  this 
color  was  a  dull  brown ;  in  1921  it  was  a  reddish-bro>\ni.  Slight 
variations  in  the  v<'rbal  descriptions  of  these  colors  may  be  traced 
to  the  use  of  different  adjectives  in  successive  introspections  and  the 
actual  coloi*s  themselves  nuiy  vary,  slightly,  when  the  letter  occurs 
in  various  associative  settings.  The  significant  feature  of  A's 
visual  imagery  of  letters,  however,  is  the  fact  that  in  each  letter 
this  colored  imagery  is  present,  no  nmtter  what  its  setting  happens 
to  be,  or  no  matter  under  what  conditions  the  letters  are  visualized 
as  long  as  the  letters  retain  their  individuality,  /.  e.,  their  indi- 
vidual meaning.     Introspection  number  10  (pioted  above  is  thor- 

[25  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

oughly  typical  as  a  demonstration  of  synaesthetic  imagery  in  con- 
nection with  letters. 

In  the  third  example  of  synaesthetic  imagery  which  we  found 
in  A's  introspections  quoted  above,  it  was  kinaesthetic  imagery 
which  was  associated  with  a  degree  of  brightness  and  here  the 
synaesthetic  image  was  a  deep  black.  A  mass  of  introspective  data 
definitely  showed  that  the  intensity  of  the  black  was  proportional 
to  the  intensity  attribute  of  the  kinaesthetic  image  and  that  the 
size  or  area  of  the  blackness  was  proportional  to  the  amount  of 
musculature  involved  in  the  kinaesthetic  image.  This  peculiar 
black  is  typical  of  all  of  A's  kinaesthetic  processes  whenever  and 
wherever  they  occur. 

Observer  B.  In  contrast  to  the  vast  amount  of  visual  imagery 
in  observer  A,  B  has  very  little  imagery  of  this  type.  The  few 
visual  images  which  B  was  able  to  recall  were  exceedingly  vague, 
fleeting  and  schematic.  Imagery  of  color  was  limited  largely  to 
the  greens  with  only  a  rare  appearance  of  other  hues.  Brightness 
qualities  far  outnumbered  color  qualities.  B  's  visual  imagery,  also, 
was  exceedingly  patchy  and  disconnected  and  was  invariably  sup- 
plemented or  "filled  out"  by  tactual  and  motor  processes.  Once 
a  flashy  visual  image  appeared  it  seemed  to  melt  away  or  dissolve 
into  a  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  setting.  B  found  it  impossible  to 
control  this  fleeting  imagery  other  than  by  resorting  to  cutaneous 
or  motor  cues  and  even  under  these  conditions  he  could  rarely 
succeed  in  reviving  a  visual  image  after  it  had  once  run  its  course. 
One  striking  feature  of  his  visual  imagery  consisted  of  its  shadow- 
like nature  together  with  its  lack  of  definite  limits  or  boundaries. 
Another  consisted  of  its  appearance  in  space  in  the  absence  of  a 
visual  setting.  It  was  projected  in  space  but  around  the  image 
was  "nothing" — the  "nothingness"  which  a  sighted  person  has 
great  difficulty  in  understanding.  It  is  the  visual  "nothingness" 
the  significance  of  which  one  can  imagine,  perhaps,  by  contemplat- 
ing upon  what  he  cannot  see  "back  of  his  head."  But  B's  visual 
imagery  did  not  appear  in  an  entirely  negative  setting  for  tactual 
or  kinaestlietic  imagery  took  the  place  of  the  extended  visual  field 
of  a  sighted  subject  and  of  our  other  blind  reagent.  A  third 
prominent  feature  of  B's  visual  imagery  consisted  of  its  confine- 
ment to  visual-kinaesthetic  schemata.  Much  of  B's  awareness  of 
space  consists  of  these  visual-motor  schemata  in  which  extendedness 

[26  1 


The  Synaesthesm  of  a  Blind  Subject 

or  movement  is  simultaneously  "seen"  and  "felt"  in  imaginal 
terms.  But  these  spacial  schemata  very  seldom  include  visualized 
objects. 

Hi.    Visual  imagery  of  A  and  B  compared. 

1.  A's  visual  imagery  is  characterized  by  a  wealth  of  color  and 
varying  degrees  of  brightness.  B's  imagery  is  confined  very 
largely  to  brightness  qualities  alone. 

2.  A's  visual  imagery  far  exceeds  B's  in  stability,  persistence 
and  complexity  of  behavior. 

3.  A  possesses  a  remarkable  control  of  visual  imagery.  B  has 
almost  no  control  of  his  visual  images. 

4.  A's  visual  imagery  appears  in  visual  settings.  B's  appears 
in  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  settings. 

5.  Visual  imagery  is  nearly  always  ushered  into  consciousness 
in  B's  case  by  vocal-motor,  tactual  or  by  kinaesthetic  imagery.  In 
A's  case  visual  imagery  itself  may  function  as  the  stimulus  or  cue 
by  which  further  visual  imagery  is  aroused. 

6.  A's  visual  attention  is  confined  to  changes  in  hues,  l)right- 
ness,  position  of  the  image,  or  to  shifts  in  size,  shape  and  distance 
of  projection  and  does  not  involve  definite  changes  in  clearly  visu- 
alized outlines,  edges,  limits  and  similar  differentia.  B's  visual 
attention  is  dependent  upon  the  effectiveness  of  tactual  and  motor 
cues  in  producing  changes  in  size,  shape,  hue  or  brightness. 

7.  The  visual  imagery  of  both  reagents  lacks  minuteness  or 
nicety  of  detai.l  While  A's  visual  imagery  has  remained  rich  in 
brightness  and  color  (pialities,  owing  perhaps  to  his  entoptic  phe- 
noitionon,  lines  and  l)rightness  (pialities  take  the  place  of  definitized 
outlines,  limits  or  boundaries.  In  this  respect  A's  visual  imagery 
varies  from  that  of  a  good  visualizer.  A's  visual  imagery  differs 
from  most  sighted  persons'  and  also  from  li's  visual  imagery  in 
that  it  yiossosses  a  synaostlietic  function.  Definiteness  of  form  and 
outline  in  li's  visual  imagery  is  provided  for  by  tactual  and 
kinaesthetic   processes. 

8.  Hoth  reagents  agree  that  their  visual  imagery  is  more  stable 
or  persistent  and  that  it  possesses  greater  continuity  when  sup- 
plemented by  tactual  or  kinaesthetic  processes.  Both  reagents 
also  agree  that  visual  iniag»'ry  of  objects  recently  inspected  or 
capable  of  being  inspected  tactual-motor  fashion  is  far  more  stable 

[27  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

and  clear  than  visual  imagery  of  objects  which  cannot  be  so  in- 
spected. Whenever  either  reagent  visualizes  large  objects  or  scenes 
those  details  stand  out  more  clearly  and  persist  longr  which  have 
been  inspected  through  touch  or  movement.  B  is  unable  to  ''see" 
any  object  which  he  cannot  or  has  not  touched. 

iv.  The  significance  of  A's  synaesthetic  imagery  in  processes 

of  visualizing. 

In  order  to  understand  the  significance  of  the  synaesthetic 
phenomena  which  occur  in  A's  visual  imagery  let  us  resort  to  an 
analogy.  Suppose  one  were  to  attend  to  the  muscular  contractions 
of  clenching  his  fist.  If  one  is  a  habitual  visualizer  he  will  visually 
localize  these  muscular  contractions  in  the  fingers  and  wrist. 
Again,  if  one's  attention  is  suddenly  attracted  to  a  strain  in  the 
throat  that  strain  will  be  localized  visually.  The  kinaesthetic  and 
visual  elements  may  be  simultaneously  present  to  consciousness  or 
at  least  very  nearly  so.  In  other  words,  part  of  the  actual  aware- 
ness of  muscular  strain  will  consist  of  a  visual  process.  In  other 
individuals  who  do  not  habitually  visualize  these  motor  processes 
it  is  conceivable  that  other  factors  such  as  verbal  imagery  or  added 
motor  phenomena  such  as  head  or  eye-movement  may  be  involved 
in  the  localization  of  muscular  strain  in  the  throat  or  wrist.  The 
presence  of  these  added  processes  whether  or  not  they  be  visual 
facilitates  the  definite  localization  of  the  muscular  strain  in  ques- 
tion. These  supplementary  processes  function  in  the  act  of  per- 
ceiving the  strain.  Without  them  it  would  be  difficult  to  compre- 
hend how  the  strain  in  question  could  be  consciously  localized  at 
all.  Again,  let  us  examine  the  process  of  perceiving  a  distant  loco- 
motive whistle.  One  tends  to  turn  his  eyes  or  head  slightly  in  the 
direction  of  the  sound ;  perhaps  he  visualizes  the  distant  source  of 
the  sound  or  characterizes  the  sound  vocal-motor  fashion.  Also 
he  may  tend  to  analyze  the  muffled  quality,  or  he  may  detect  an 
echo,  or  he  may  note  the  greater  definiteness  of  the  sound  as  heard 
by  one  ear  rather  than  the  other,  all  of  which  supplementary  pro- 
cesses contribute  to  his  perception  of  the  sound. 

Returning  to  observer  A,  a  mass  of  introspective  material  dem- 
onstrates beyond  any  possibility  of  doubt  that  A  can  no  more 
"image"  an  arm-movement  without  seeing  "black,"  or  visualize 
a  "t"  without  seeing  reddish-brown,  or  visualize  professor  0  with- 

[28] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

out  that  peculiar  quality  of  light  yellowish  tan,  than  can  an  asynaes- 
thetic  individual  become  conscious  of  the  direction  from  which  a 
sound  appears  unless  he  tends  to  resort  to  such  supplementary 
processes  as  visual,  motor,  verbal  or  other  imagery.  A's  synaes- 
thetic  imagery  functions  exactly  as  those  supplementary  processes 
function — it  is  an  integral  part  of  the  perceptual  or  conceptual 
process.  So  far  as  A's  synaesthetic  processes  have  thus  been  de- 
scribed they  apjiear  not  as  a  new  group  or  genus  of  mental  activi- 
ties but  as  a  new  species  of  an  old  and  familiar  genus — a  species 
of  meaning.  For  A  the  appearance  of  a  light  reddish-brown  in 
response  to  the  letter  "t"  means  "t".  The  particular  yellowish- 
tan  aroused  by  a  professor-0-stimulus  means  professor  0  and 
without  this  color  observer  A  would  be  visualizing  not  professor  0 
but  an  unrecognized  or  unidentified  person.  In  a  similar  fashion, 
black,  projected  in  the  musculature  while  muscles  are  contracting, 
means  "muscular"  sensation  and  identifies  that  experience  as  a 
kinaesthetic  one  rather  than  as  a  tactual  or  an  auditory  experience. 
As  a  result,  the  original  kinaesthetic  quality  of  the  experience 
tends  to  be  ignored  so  far  as  the  behavior  of  A's  attention  is  con- 
cerned. 

The  significance  of  synaesthetic  processes  in  A's  case  at  least 
is  far  too  great  to  be  dismissed  here  with  but  one  analogy.  If  an 
asynaesthetic  individual  were  asked  to  visualize  a  person  whom  he 
had  not  seen  for  years  he  would  find  that  his  visual  attention 
would  be  claimed  first,  perhaps,  by  a  face  in  which  certain  features 
stood  out  more  prominently  than  others.  One  of  these  features 
might  be  a  peculiar  color  of  skin,  a  mole,  a  nuistache  of  certain 
shape,  a  certain  degree  of  l)aldness,  a  characteristic  wrinkle,  or  a 
combination  of  features.  Together  with  this  visual  imagery  there 
perhaps  appears  verbal  imagery  pertaining  to  past  events  in  which 
this  particular  visualized  person  figured ;  or  there  is  aroused  an 
organic  and  motor  complex  which  characterizes  this  visualize<l 
person  as  familiar.  The  possibilities  are  almost  innumerable.  But 
certain  definite  details  are  organized  within  the  image  complex 
itself  or  tend  to  crowd  into  consciousness  together  with  this  image 
complex  and  as  a  result  the  experience  becomes  that  of  a  visual 
image  of  a  definite,  particular  person  rather  than  of  some  other 
person. 

[29  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

So,  with  our  reagent.  When  he  visualizes  professor  0,  such 
details  of  additional  visual,  verbal  or  other  imagery  as  have 
been  described  above  are  lacking  bmt  in  their  place  there  appears 
a  particular  quality  of  yellowish-tan.  This  color  identifies  the 
visual  image  as  one  of  professor  0  exactly  as  the  supplementary 
processes  mentioned  above  identify  a  visual  image  in  an  asynaes- 
thetic  subject.  A's  attention  is  directed  to  a  certain  color  quality 
rather  than  to  a  certain  shaped  chin,  a  certain  profile,  a  peculiarly 
shaped  mustache  or  what  not.  And  furthermore,  while  A  is  visu- 
alizing this  yellow-tan,  it  is  a  familiar  yellow-tan  in  the  same 
fashion  as  is  a  certain  facial  feature,  in  the  visual  imagery  of  the 
asynaesthetic  observer,  a  familiar  one. 

A's  so-called  snyaesthetie  images  are  but  substitutes  for  a  pos- 
sible variety  of  secondary  processes  which  occur  under  similar 
conditions  in  the  asynaesthetic  individual.  They  are  substi- 
tutes, also,  for  the  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  secondary  processes 
which  occur  in  case  of  observer  B.  The  functioning  of  sj^naesthetic 
processes  is  identical  with  the  functioning  of  secondary  processes 
in  acts  of  perceiving  or  of  identifying.  Thus  the  functioning  is 
the  same  in  all  cases  although  the  mental  ''content"  involved  may 
radically  differ. 

Further  evidence  of  the  cognitive  nature  of  synaesthesis  may 
be  found  in  A's  introspections.  In  introspection  16  we  found  that 
A  reported  a  kinaesthetic  image  which  turned  into  a  visual  image 
of  "deep  black"  localized  in  the  thumb  and  wrist  musculature. 
Under  the  proper  conditions  we  found  that  A  can  be  made  to  be- 
come aware  of  the  "blackness"  of  muscular  strain  before  he  is 
aware  of  the  kinaesthetic  quality  itself.  In  fact  it  is  the  Aufgahe 
which  determines  which  of  the  two  qualities — the  black  or  the 
strain — shall  be  attended  to  first.  If  the  strain  claims  attention 
first  there  is  invariably  a  shift  to  the  visual  black.  If  the  visual 
black  is  the  first  to  claim  attention  in  any  given  instance  it  may 
happen  that  the  quality  of  strain  fails  entirely  to  develop ; 
in  fact  it  may  be  ignored  entirely  unless  it  happens  to  persist. 
Thus  it  happens  that  when  the  visual  associate  appears  in  the 
absence  of  its  parent  process  (here  the  parent  process  is  the  kinaes- 
thetic quality  of  strain)  a  black  streak  or  area  localized  in  the 
musculature  means  a  localized  strain  quality.  That  is,  in  the 
presence  of  the  appropriate  mental  set  or  preparedness,  black  may 

[30] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

mean  muscular  strain   in  the  absence  of  any  intimation   of  the 
strain  itself. 

This  and  much  other  evidence  shows  conclusively,  we  believe, 
that  when  two  imagfinal  processes  appear  together  in  consciousness, 
such  as  a  visual  black  and  a  kinaesthetic  strain,  we  have  a  clear 
case  of  synaesthesia  but  with  the  difference  that  the  stimulus  is 
not  now  a  peripheral  one  as  in  case  of  the  so-called  synaesthesia 
proper.  In  case  of  synaesthesia  the  stimulus  is  a  sensation.  In 
the  ease  of  the  black  muscular  imagery  the  stimulus  is  an  image. 
The  same  is  true  of  colored  imagery  of  professor  0  or  of  different 
letters. 

b.  (Series  1  continued.)  Auditory  imagery, 
i.  Typical  introspective  data. 
[Instructions:      Call  up  auditory  imagery  of  professor   (X)   saying  at  the 
close  of  a  lecture:      "The  next  natural  division  seems  to  be  from  thirty -one  to 
fifty-one;  take  that  for  next  time. "J 

17.  Observer  A.  "  I  tried  for  some  time  to  recall  Prof.  DeB's  voice  as  he 
might  repeat  these  words  but  was  unsuccessful.  I  simply  found  myself  ex- 
periencing auditory  imagery  of  the  experimenter's  voice  as  he  repeated  the  in- 
structions together  with  the  peculiar  light,  silvery  grey  patches  which  always  ac- 
company auilitory  imagery  of  the  experimenter's  voice  and  auditory  per- 
ceptions of  his  voice,  as  well.  In  order  to  imagine  how  professor  DeB  's  voice 
sounds  I  found  it  necessary  to  inhibit  my  own  vocal-motor  imagery.  My  own 
voeul-motor  imagery,  which  tended  to  appear,  produced  series  of  visvialized 
colors  on  which  I  coidd  not  prevent  my  attention  from  lingering.  Hy  keeping 
my  own  vocal-motor  imagery  inhibited  (this  I  accomplished  by  tensing  the 
nuiscles  of  my  throat)  1  was  able  to  recall  a  few  very  fleeting  and  sketchy 
auditory  images  of  DrB's  voice,  such  as  the  words,  'Pardon  :i  personal  ref- 
erence,' which  I  often  used  to  hear  him  say  during  his  lectures.  Kach  word 
was  of  very  short  duration  and  by  the  time  the  second  a|>i)eared  the  first  had 
vanished  entirely;  the  timbre  was,  as  such,  imlistinguishable  form  the  dark, 
reddish  brown  color  which  always  identifies  his  voice.  The  imagery  seemed  to 
be  'pinched';  he  was  speaking  as  if  he  were  hurried  or  slightly  embarrassed; 
on  attending  closely  to  the  visual  (jualities  of  his  voice  I  was  able  to  obtain 
more  definite  auditory  imagery;  tlie  enunciation  becanu-  nu)re  distinct:  the 
(juality  was  less  nuillletl;  and  his  speech  m'cuumI  to  take  on  the  (juality  of  his 
lecture  voice  as  I  have  heard  him  from  a  distance  of  Itn  or  40  feet.  1  was 
tiien  ;iware  of  visual  imagery  of  his  teeth  but  I  s;iw  nothing  of  his  facial 
features,  of  his  clothes  or  of  his  general  appearance.  Onring  :ill  of  this  time 
I  was  dimly  aware  of  tiie  persisting  strains  in  my  throat  from  inhibiting  my 
own  verb:d  imagery.  The  dark  redilish  brow?i  synaesthetic  imagery  i)ersisted 
througlmnt  and  it  was  by  means  of  this  latter  imagery  that  I  was  ai>le  to 
describe  the  auditory  <|ualities  of  his  voice.  Hctth  auditory  ami  visu:il  (pialities 
were  present  to  consciousness  but  the  visual  ipKilities  were  invjiriably  the 
claimants  of  my  attention.  When  I  attempted  to  aiuilyse  the  auditory  (pialities 
as  such  I  found  th;it   f  was  .-ilways  resr)rting  to  features  of  my  visual  inuigery." 

18.  Obsrrrer  B..  Sanu'  instructions.  "  I  could  readily  obtain  distinct  and 
]>ersisting  auditory  im.'igery  of  the  statement  just  tjuoted  in  terms  of  Nfr..!/ '.s 
voice.  The  cpiality  was  good;  each  f(>ature  of  the  imag<'ry  was  clear  and 
rich  in  detail.  I  detected  the  liipiid  suavity  which  is  strikingly  characteristic 
of  Mr.   M 's  voice;    I    n:iticed   characteristic   pauses  between   each  of  his  words 

[31  I 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

and  even  heard  him  utter  his  peculiar  *ah'  sound  between  the  phrase  'fifty-one' 
and  the  word  'take'.  Articulation  in  my  auditory  imagery  was  characterized 
by  marked  definiteness;  the  pitch  stood  out  with  equal  clearness.  While  this 
imagery  was  presenting  itself  I  tended  to  imitate  his  voice  in  vocal-motor 
fashion,  emphasizing  the  words  as  I  imagined  Mr.  M  emphasizing  them.  So 
clear  was  the  imagery  and  so  qualitatively  perfect  that  I  at  once  found  myself 
saying  in  vocal-motor  imagery:  'that  is  certainly  Mr.  M.  all  right'." 

[Instructions:  Recall  some  familiar  tune.  Can  you  hear  yourself  singing 
it?  Can  you  hear  it  played  upon  the  piano?  Can  you  hear  it  played  on  the 
violin?     Can  you  hear  a  chorus  singing  it?] 

19.  Observer  A.  "  For  a  considerable  length  of  time  I  tried  to  select  a 
tune  which  I  could  hear  in  terms  of  auditory  imagery  but  was  entirely  un- 
successful. Finally  I  thought  of  'Yankee  Doodle'  and  centered  my  attention 
upon  it.  The  quality  of  my  auditory  imagery  was  very  poor  and  indistinct  and 
was  confused  with  vocal-motor  tendencies  which  latter  were  exceedingly  strong. 
What  little  quality  of  tone  was  present  seemed  to  be  hoarse  and  muffled  with 
only  a  faint  suggestion  now  and  then  of  the  timbre  of  my  voice.  I  was  able 
to  recall  imagery  of  only  the  first  few  measures  of  the  tune.  Then  the  auditory 
imagery  vanished  and  I  found  myself  attending  to  a  strained  condition  in  my 
throat  as  if  I  were  still  trying  to  innervate  the  notes.  Together  with  this 
auditory  imagery  of  my  own  voice  I  was  distinctly  conscious  of  the  color  quali- 
ties which  always  accompany  my  own  voice  when  I  actually  speak  as  well  as 
when  I  have  auditory  imagery  of  my  voice;  I  was  also  aware  of  spots  of  visual 
'brightness'  which  represented  the  notes  I  was  endeavoring  to  sing.  I  noticed, 
further,  that  my  auditory  imagery  was  slow,  labored  and  'dragged  out'  and 
that  the  colors  brightened  with  rises  in  pitch  and  darkened  with  lowerings  in 
pitch;  in  fact  differences  between  one  note  and  another  were  marked  off 
much  more  by  vocal-motor  imagery  and  by  changes  in  these  colors  than  by 
variations  in  the  aiiditory  qualities  themselves.  The  colors  lingered  after  the 
auditory  imagery  itself  disappeared  but  along  with  these  persisting  colors 
I  was  aware  of  persisting  vocal-motor  efforts  of  preparing  to  make  musical 
sounds.  The  color  of  the  imagery  was  a  thick,  smoky  blue  which  appeared  in 
small,  cloud-like  forms.  When  my  imagery  changed  pitch  these  cloud-like 
forms  not  only  brightened  or  darkened  but  tended  to  roll  upward  for  higher 
pitches  and  downward  for  the  lower  notes.  So  closely  was  the  visual  imagery 
associated  with  the  auditory  that  I  could  hardly  tell  the  one  from  the  other. 
When  I  thought  that  I  was  describing  actual  sound  qualities  I  discovered  that 
I  was  describing  qualities  or  behavior  of  the  visual  accompaniment.  Yet  I  was 
able  to  tell  when  the  auditory  processes  themselves  dropped  out  because  of 
a  dulling  and  shrinking  of  the  visual  processes  themselves.  After  considerable 
effort  I  found  it  utterly  impossible  to  imagine  Yankee  Doodle  played  on  the 
piano  or  violin.  It  was  equally  impossible  for  me  to  hear  voices  singing  this 
tune. " 

20.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  "(I  recalled  the  tune  of  'A  Heart 
Bowed  Down.')  I  could  hear  myself  singing  this  tune  with  a  rather  satis- 
factory degree  of  clearness  but  noted  that,  throughout,  vocal-motor  tendencies 
were  very  strong.  While  my  auditory  processes  were  clear  and  presistent,  they 
were  characterized  by  a  'deadness'  or  lack  of  richness  of  quality;  the  timbre 
was  shallow  and  lacked  resonance.  I  could  not  imagine  the  tune  played  on  a 
piano  but  had  definite  auditorj'  imagery  of  a  violin  playing  the  melody.  Here 
the  imagery  was  clear,  intense,  persistent  and  of  good  quality.  I  distinctly 
heard  the  stringy  or  twangy  quality  of  the  tones;  also  the  rich,  smooth,  mel- 
lowness of  a  good  instrument.  Nevertheless  the  quality  seemed  to  lack  'point', 
which,  I  believe,  must  be  inability  to  detect  the  finer  features  of  a  violin  tone 
in  terms  of  imagery,  alone.  (I  persume  that  I  am  comparing  the  quality  of 
my  auditory  imagery  with  the  quality  of  auditory  perceptions  of  violin  tones 
when  I  characterize  the  quality  of  my  auditory  imagery  as  lacking  in  'point'.) 
Along  with  this  latter  auditory  imagery  I  had  very  clear  and  definitely  localized 

[32] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

kinaesthetic  imagery  of  playing  a  violin,  together  with  a  very  fleeting  and 
schematic  visual,  shadow-like  image  of  the  movements  of  an  unseen  bow 
across  a  vaguely  localized  spot  where  the  strings  might  have  been.  The  shadow 
appeared  in  space  but  had  no  visual  setting  whatever.  Its  setting  was  the 
motor  imagery  which  I  have  just  described." 

[Instructions:  Recall  auditory  imagery  of  a  chorus  singing  an  oratorio  or 
of  an  orchestra  playing.] 

21.  Observer  A.  "  I  was  unable  to  recall  auditory  imagery  of  a  chonis  but 
succeeded  in  obtaining  sketchy  auditory  imagery  of  an  orchestra  playing  the 

Overture  from  Poet  and  Peasant The  first  auditory  imagery  was  that  of 

a  flute  playing  a  succession  of  very  rapid  notes  somewhat  toward  the  latter  half 
of  the  selection  but  at  just  what  place  I  am  unable  to  tell.  I  heard  only  a  few 
of  the  very  highest  notes.  For  not  more  than  three  or  four  notes  in  succession 
there  aj)peared  the  characteristic  mellow,  wood-like  quality,  intimately  fused 
with  tiny,  blue,  cloud-like  forms,  which  latter  rapidly  piled  upward  and  upon 
one  another  as  the  flute  tones  shifted  upward  in  pitch.  All  of  this  imagery  was 
exceedingly  flashy  and  fleeting  and  gave  way  to  similarly  fleeting  auditory- 
visual  imagery  of  violin  tones.  Tlie  violins  were  apparently  playing  the  same 
notes  as  did  the  flutes,  for  the  behavior  of  the  visual  forms  was  similar.  I  knew 
that  my  auditory  imagery  had  changed  from  flutes  to  violins  for  the  reason 
that  my  visual  imagery  changed  from  the  tiny  blue  clouds  of  smoke  which 
meant  flute  tones  to  mahogany-brown  cloud-like  forms  for  the  \nolins.  These 
colors  also  varied  in  brightness  as  the  tones  varied  in  pitch.  Next  I  was  aware 
of  sketchy  auditory  imagery  of  horns  playing  at  a  much  lower  pitch  and  I  saw 
the  characteristic  yellowish-grey  splotches  which  mean  horn  tones.  I  found  it 
impossible  to  begin  at  the  beginning  of  the  selection  and  to  hear  any  consider- 
able part  of  it  jilayed.  In  the  absence  of  any  auditory  imagery  at  all,  how- 
ever, I  can  obtain  long  and  persisting  successions  of  visual  images — varying 
colors  and  brightnesses — which  mean  different  portions  of  the  selection.  The 
quality  of  this  imagery  represents  different  qualities  of  tones,  i.  e.,  different 
musical  instruments;  the  behavior  of  this  imagery  represents  rapid  runs, 
chords,  varying  pitches  and  the  like.  It  is  all  so  fast  and  complex  that  I  can- 
not fix  my  attention  upon  any  one  group  of  images  long  enough  to  describe 
them  in  adequate  detail.  (This  imagery,  however,  is  definitely  distinguishable 
from  the  colors  and  brightness  of  my  visual,  sensory  field.)  " 

[In  order  to  ascertain  whether  this  visual  imagery  was  at  all  faithful  in 
representing  different  portions  of  the  overture,  the  experimenter  subsequently 
played  the  overture  to  observer  A  on  the  piano.  Since  A  's  imagery  stood  for 
orchestral  rather  than  for  jtiano  tones,  the  ])iano  tones  changed  the  quality  of 
A  's  memory  images  of  the  selection.  Nevertheless  A  was  able  to  recognize  the 
outstanding  features  of  the  overture  in  terms  of  recurrences  in  this  character- 
istic behavior  of  his  visual  synaesthetic  processes.  The  i)iano  rendition  stim- 
ulated shiftings  in  visual  imagery,  and  peculiar  successions  or  flights  of  visual 
forms  just  as  had  an  orchestral  rendition  done  in  the  past.  A  repeatetUy  de- 
tected similarities  between  the  behavior  of  his  visual  forms  during  the  piano 
rendition  and  the  behavior  of  tliese  forms  (altliough  dilTerently  ccdoreil")  in  the 
auditory  recall  of  the  orcliesfral  reiulition.  Moreover,  the  detached  visual 
imagery,  described  in  intros|tection  21,  was  recognized  so  far  as  its  behavior 
was  concerned  during  the  liearing  of  the  seh'ction  on  tlie  ])iano.  There  is  no 
doubt,  therefore,  that  synaesthetic  imagery,  detached  from  its  parent  processes, 
may  be  as  faithful  to  the  original  selection  as  is  the  auditory  imagery  itself, 
in  an  asynaesthetic  subject.  .Added  evidence  fo  this  fact  may  be  found  in 
the  circumstance  that  ol)server  A  recognized  in  terms  of  behavior  of  synaes- 
thetic imagery  certain  sections  of  the  overture  which  he  was  unable  to  revive 
during  tlie  voluntary  recall.] 

22.  Ohsrrvtr  7?.  Same  instructions.  "  T  recalled  auditory  imagery  of  a 
chorus  singing  Mozart's  'Twelfth  Mass'.  There  first  apeared  very  clear  and 
beautifully  toned  imagerv  of  the  opening  bars.     The  voices  were  well  blended, 

[  33  ] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

the  tenors,  however,  ilominating.  Along  with  this  auditory  imagery  I  found 
myself  tending  to  join  in  the  singing  in  terms  of  auditory-vocal-motor  imagery 
of  my  own  voice.  The  quality  of  pitch  stood  out  clearly  in  the  auditory  imagery 
of  the  voices;  each  voice  seemed  to  be  directly  on  the  pitch  and  the  tones  were 
well  rounded,  full  and  resonant.  After  the  first  few  bars  all  voices  dropped  out 
except  the  tenors  whom  I  heard  singing  for  several  additional  measures.  Then 
I  was  aware  of  intensive  muscular  contractions  about  the  chest  as  if  I  were  be- 
ginning to  take  a  very  deep  breath;  I  had  a  peculiar  tenseness  in  the  region  of 
my  diaphragm,  a  widely  diffused  feeling  of  exhilaration  which  consisted  of  ten- 
dencies to  sit  more  erectly  in  my  chair  and  to  sway  my  head  and  the  upper 
part  of  my  body  to  the  rhythm  of  the  music.  There  was  also  a  contracted  con- 
dition of  the  shoulders,  arms,  back  and  throat  as  my  whole  bodily  attitude  be. 
came  tense.  Thereupon  there  burst  into  consciousness  loud  and  penetrating 
auditory  imagery  of  the  entire  chorus  singing  '  Glorious ' ;  at  this  juncture  I 
was  dimly  aware  of  inhibited  breathing;  of  marked  pleasantness,  coincident 
with  tendencies  to  smile.  (These  latter  experiences  I  interpreted  as  a  con- 
sciousness of  the  grandeur  of  the  music.)  " 

[Instructions:     Rcall  auditory  imagery  of  a  locomotive  whistle.] 

23.  Observer  A.  "  I  can  obtain  no  auditory  imagery  of  the  whistle.  Instead 
there  appeared  very  vivid  visual  imagery,  first,  of  a  floating  cloud  of  beeswax- 
yellow  which  represented  a  certain  freight  whistle  I  have  often  heard.  There 
then  appeared  a  blue  and  grey  mixture  which  stood  for  a  passenger  whistle. 
Each  was  labeled  in  terms  of  auditory-vocal -motor  imagery.  In  neither  in- 
stance, however,  could  I  obtain  any  auditory  qualities  whatever." 

24.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  "I  at  once  had  a  very  clear  and  in- 
tense auditory  image  of  a  locomotive  whistle;  the  sound  was  loud  and  shrill 
but  persisted  for  only  a  short  time,  together  with  the  quality,  which  was  harsh 
and  piercing.  I  was  conscious  of  a  distinct  feeling  of  unpleasantness.  This 
latter  consisted  of  tenseness  about  the  chest  muscles,  of  tendencies  to  frown  and 
of  an  expansion  somewhere  in  the  region  of  the  abdomen  which  I  think  were 
concerned  with  tendencies  to  breathe  more  rapidly.  I  also  noticed  a  tightening 
about  the  jaws.  All  of  this  was  accompanied  by  a  clear  but  sketchy  auditory- 
vocal-motor:  'Gee,  that's  loud!'  (I  reacted  to  the  auditory  imagery  just  as 
I  would  have  reacted  to  an  actual  whistle  but  with  a  lesser  degree  of  in- 
tensity.)" 

n.  Summary  of  introspective  data  on  auditory  imagery. 

Observer  A.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  observer  A  is  blind 
and  that  we  might  therefore  expect  his  auditory  imagery  to  have 
been  developed  by  means  of  constant  use  in  every  day  life  we  find 
on  the  contrary  that  this  type  of  imagery  is  exceedingly  fleeting, 
vague,  sketchy  and  meager  as  regards  detail.  A  is  unable  to  recall 
in  auditory  terms  many  sounds  and  noises  which  are  perfectly 
familiar  when  perceived.  Because  of  its  vagueness  of  timbre  and 
pitch,  its  brief  duration  in  consciousness  and  dearth  of  detail, 
auditory  imagery  is  subject  to  only  slight  voluntary  control.  This 
control  is  secured  very  largely  by  means  of  detached  visual  synaes- 
thetic  images  which  suggest  their  parent  auditory  qualities  and 
at  times  by  means  of  vocal-motor  processes.  Very  rarely  will  one 
auditory  complex,  itself,  suggest  another. 

[34] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

The  Aufgahe  to  recall  auditory  imagery  and  subsequently  to 
describe  it  resulted,  in  this  experiment,  in  an  attempt  to  isolate 
the  qualities  and  pitches  of  the  imagined  sounds  from  their  visual 
accompaniments  but  inevitably  the  visual  process  which  accom- 
panies every  auditory  image  claimed  the  focus  of  A's  attention. 
It  turned  out  that  efforts  to  attend  to  the  auditory  qualities  them- 
selves resulted  in  a  diminishing  of  the  clearness  of  the  visual  ac- 
companiments, and  in  such  instances  A's  attention  shifted  to  the 
muscular  elements  of  attending  rather  than  to  the  auditory  quali- 
ties per  SB.  Thus  it  seems  that  in  attending  to  sounds  as  such 
(and  the  same  is  true  of  attempts  to  attend  to  any  sensory  process 
other  than  the  visual )  one  of  two  things  inevitably  results :  either 
the  effort  is  shunted  into  motor  channels  or  the  effort  results  in 
a  shift  to  the  visual  accompaniment.  If  the  effort  results  in  a 
dominance  of  muscular  features  the  visual  features  of  the  experi- 
ence at  once  tend  to  fade.  Consequently  at  times  in  A's  intro- 
spections there  appears  not  only  a  meager  description  of  the  audi- 
tory qualities  but  also  of  the  visual.  We  believe  that  the  reason 
for  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  observer  A  can  describe 
auditory  qualities  only  in  terms  of  visual  qualities  and  hence,  when 
the  latter  are  non-focal,  it  is  impossible  to  identify  the  auditory 
qualities  themselves.  In  this  fashion  efforts  to  isolate  the  auditory 
qualities  as  such  render  it  difficult  to  observe  the  accompanying 
visual  imagery.     The  effort  thus  defeats  itself. 

The  colors  which  are  associated  with  auditory  imagery  are  in- 
variably identical  with  those  colors  which  accompany  corresponding 
auditory  perceptions.  The  former  colors,  however,  may  be  less 
vivid,  more  fleeting,  less  saturated  or  less  bright  than  the  colors 
which  accompany  the  analogous  perceptual  processes.  Obviously 
this  state  of  affairs  is  due  to  the  fact  that  auditory  images  are  less 
stable  and  are  ordinarily,  in  themselves,  less  clear  and  definite  as 
regards  qualitative  detail  than  are  the  corresponding  perceptual 
experiences.  On  the  otlier  hand  his  introspections  on  auditory 
imagery  have  shown  that  the  visual  aecompaniments  may  become 
detached  from  their  parent  processes,  the  auditory  images,  and  may 
appear  alone  in  prolonged  trains  or  successions.  In  this  fashion 
there  may  appear  in  A  's  consciousness  successions  of  colors  or  de- 
grees of  brightness  which  stand  for  remembrances  of  successions 
or  of  combinations  of  tones.     This  state  of  affairs  is  most  likely  to 

[35  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

occur  as  a  result  of  an  Aufgabe  to  recall  auditory  imagery  which 
has  apparently  decayed  beyond  the  possibility  of  easy  arousal,  and 
phows  tha^  the  visual  associates  of  auditory  images  appear  more 
readily  than  do  the  auditory  images  themselves.  A  frequently  ex- 
periences this  situation  in  every  day  life,  particularly  in  trying  to 
recall  names  of  persons.  The  color  which  symbolizes  a  certain 
name  may  appear  detached  from  its  parent  process  and  no  amount 
of  effort  will  result  in  recalling  the  name  itself. 

Observer  B.  Auditory  imagery  plays  a  very  important  role  in 
^11  of  B's  higher  mental  processes,  although,  as  we  shall  discover 
later,  it  is  less  important  than  cutaneous  or  kinaesthetic  imagery. 
Prominent  features  of  his  auditory  imagery  consist  of  its  clearness, 
intensity,  wealth  of  qualitative  detail,  wideness  of  range  and  va- 
riety, readiness  of  voluntary  control,  but  of  relative  lack  of  per- 
sistence and  lack  of  exact  faithfulness  to  the  delicate  qualitative 
features  of  his  auditory  perceptions.  As  in  the  case  of  his  visual 
imagery  B  finds  himself  tending  to  translate  auditory  imagery 
into  kinaesthetic  processes.  If  it  is  his  own  voice  or  another  per- 
son's voice,  a  tune  or  melody  played  upon  a  musical  instrument 
which  is  the  subject  matter  of  this  auditory  imagery,  kinaesthetic 
processes  invariably  constitute  a  setting  or  background,  and  here 
this  setting  is  usually  vocal-motor  or  manual-motor  imagery.  For 
example,  while  B  was  experiencing  auditory  imagery  of  a  violin 
he  was  aware  of  manual-motor  imagery  of  playing  the  instrument. 

in.  Auditory  imagery  of  A  and  B  compared. 

1.  B's  auditory  imagery  far  exceeds  A's  in  all  matters  of  at- 
tribute and  behavior. 

2.  In  contrast  to  B's  kinaesthetic  background,  A's  settings  for 
auditory  imagery  are  largely  visual  with  now  and  then  a  vocal- 
motor  accompaniment. 

3.  Both  observers  agreed  that  auditory  imagery  was  more  stable 
when  accompanied  by  other  forms  of  imagery.  Moreover,  the 
presence  of  a  background  or  setting  was  definitely  correlated,  in 
both  observers,  with  wealth  of  quality  and  variety  of  range  in  the 
auditory  imagery. 

4.  Both  reagents  resorted  to  other  types  of  imagery  other  than 
the  auditory  in  a  voluntary    attempt    to    control    the    auditory 

[36  1 


The  8ynaesihesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

images  themselves.  Both  reagents  had  recourse  to  vocal-motor 
imagery  but  in  A's  case  this  method  proved  to  be  a  disadvantage 
for  the  reason  that  it  resulted  in  arousing  extra  visual  imagery 
which  dominated  consciousness  to  the  exclusion  of  the  desired  audi- 
tory-visual imagery. 

5.  ^  is  synaesthetic  with  respect  to  auditory  imagery.    B  is  not. 

iv.  Significance  of  A's  synaesthetic  processes  in  the  fiel4  of  audi- 
tory imagery. 

The  following  considerations  point  to  the  similarity  of  synaes- 
thetic phenomena  and  synaesthesia  proper  in  the  field  of  audition. 
In  both  instances  the  behavior  and  properties  of  the  associated 
visual  image  depend  upon  the  behavior  and  properties  of  the  parent 
proc.ess  as  long  as  the  latter  is  present  in  consciousness;  in  both 
instances  the  associated  image  appears  to  have  the  same  function 
Q|r  v^ue — that  of  identifying  the  parent  process.  (This  observa- 
tion we  have  made  only  in  a  general  way  so  far.  It  remain^  to 
be  determined  whether  this  fact  is  invariably  true.)  On  the  other 
hand  we  have  found  a  singular  difference  between  synaesthetic 
phenomena  and  synaesthesia  proper.  In  the  latter  the  associated 
image  seldom  appears  in  the  absence  of  the  primary  process  while 
in  the  former  the  associated  image  may  frequently  appear  without 
the  primary  image  to  which  it  is  normally  attached.  Wlienever 
the  associated  image  thus  appears  detached  and  alone  it  symbolizes 
or  stands  for  the  primary  image  which  is  lacking. 

It  is  evident  that  in  the  synaesthetic  phenomena  of  A's  field  of 
audition  the  implied  qualities  and  behavior  of  auditory  images  are 
described  and  identified  in  terms  of  their  accompanying  visual 
images,  and  that  when  A  wishes  to  attend  to  auditory  qualities  as 
such  he  can  do  so  only  by  way  of  a  visual  "route."  This,  in  our 
estimation,  can  signify  only  one  tiling,  namely,  that  the  act  of  be- 
coming conscious  of  auditory  ([ualities  in  A's  case  demands  a  visual 
image.  This  means  that  in  order  to  "ognize"  an  auditory  image 
— for  that  is  what  is  iinpliod  by  b(M'oniii;g  conscious  of  an  auditory 
image  as  sucli — a  certain  behavior  of  attention  is  necessary  or  a 
certain  and  very  greatly  attenuated  process  of  recognizing  is  im- 
plied. In  the  process  of  recalling  definite  and  particular  auditory 
images  the  asynaesthetic  subject  evidently  uses  "old"  auditory 
imagery  itself  or  else  secondary  factors,  such  as  are  involved  in 
the  act  of  perceiving  a  sound.     Our  synaesthetic  subject  employs 

[37] 


•/  r  (^  ('i  o 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

visual  imagery  instead.  But  this  is  not  an  extraneous  or  unneces- 
sary habit  which  observer  A  has  developed.  It  so  happens  that  A 
cannot  become  conscious  of  an  auditory  image  in  the  absence  of  its 
identifyer,  the  visual  image,  any  more  than  can  an  asynaesthetic 
person  become  aware  of  a  flute  tone,  for  example,  either  without 
a  definite  standing-out  of  a  characteristic  woody  or  punky,  hollow- 
like quality  or  without  some  secondary  criterion  such  as  visual 
imagery  of  a  flute,  someone  playing  a  flute,  or  such  as  the  verbal 
image,  "flute."  A's  visual  synaesthetic  images  are  criteria  of  his 
auditory  images.  They  are  not  vicarious  processes.  A  is  able  to 
visualize  a  flute;  he  can  say  the  word  "flute."  He  has  auditory 
imagery  of  flutes.  The  problem  is  simply  this :  an  asynaesthetic 
person  must  have  other  processes  aside  from  a  bare,  raw,  or  isolated 
and  indescribable  quality  of  tone  before  that  tone,  even  in  terms  of 
imagery,  can  become  a  flute  tone.  A's  mental  life  offers  no  ex- 
ception to  this  general  rule.  A's  synaesthetic  images,  so-called, 
constitute  these  other  processes.  In  other  words  his  visual  associ- 
ates of  auditory  images  lend  meaning  to  the  auditory  imagery  itself. 

c.  Tactual  imagery.   (Series  1  continued.) 
i.  Typical  introspective  data. 

[Instructions:  Recall  tactual  imagery  of  roses  lying  in  a  box  and  backed 
by  ferns.] 

25.  Observer  A.  "As  the  experimenter  said  'roses'  I  was  aware  of  mom- 
entary tactual  imagery  of  the  feel  of  the  buds,  localized  at  the  tips  of  my 
fingers  and  in  the  palm  of  my  right  hand;  no  sooner  had  this  imagery  appeared, 
however,  when  my  attention  shifted  very  suddenly  to  a  group  of  tiny  blocks 
of  faint  light.  This  latter  imagery  was  not  visual  imagery  of  the  rose  buds 
themselves  but  consisted  of  visual  synaesthetic  processes  which  always  accom- 
pany this  quality  of  pressure.  I  then  revived  this  tactual  imagery,  the  exact 
details  of  which  I  had  not  observed  previously,  and  detected  the  spongy-like 
softness  of  the  sides  of  the  buds,  and  this  imagery,  like  the  first,  was  not 
only  localized  at  my  finger  tips  and  palm  but  was  accompanied  by  and  tended 
to  shift  into  visual  imagery.  In  every  instance  the  visual  synaesthetic  pro- 
cesses persisted  longer  than  did  the  tactual  qualities.  Then,  as  the  experi- 
menter said  'ferns'  I  had  fleeting  tactual  imagery  of  ferns  pressing  against 
the  ends  of  my  fingers,  together  with  imagery  of  coldness;  the  coldness  quality 
dominated  and  at  once  the  entire  experience  developed  into  a  visualized,  syn- 
aesthetic cold.  As  before  my  attention  shifted  in  the  direction  of  visual  from 
the  tactual  processes.  I  was  then  aware  of  the  closer  edge  of  a  box,  in  terms, 
first  of  tactual  imagery  localized  on  the  under  side  of  my  wrist  as  if  the  box 
were  pressing  against  my  wrist  while  my  hand  might  have  been  extended  ov^r 
into  the  box  itself.  Again  this  imagery  at  once  turned  to  visual  imagery.  Then 
there  returned  tactual  imagery  of  ferns  localized  on  the  inside  of  my  thumb 
and  index  finger  as  if  I  were  holding  a  fern  in  my  hand,  but  at  this  juncture 
the  tactual  imagery,  the  qualities  of  which  at  no  time  stood  out  focally  in  con- 
sciousness, as  such,  suddenly  gave  way  to  visual  imagery  of  tiny  bars  of  light; 
these  resembled  in  brightness  and  in  behavior  the  sparkles  from  a  large  diamond 
and  meant  to  me  the  roughness  of  the  tactual  imagery.  I  forgot  to  mention 

[38] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

that  the  color  which  appeared  in  connection  with  the  image  of  coldness  was  the 
usual  bright  silvery  light  which  always  means  coldness.  It  was  coldness  which 
dominated  in  the  first  tactual  imagery  of  the  ferns;  now  it  was  the  roughness  of 
the  ferns.  All  during  this  time  I  was  dimly  conscious  of  persisting  colored, 
forms,  characteristic  of  the  experimenter's  voice;  these  colors  were  suspended 
in  space  In  the  left  margin  of  my  visual  field — the  region  nearest  the  experi- 
menter. I  should  have  mentioned  also  that  the  dim  white  light  associated 
with  the  pressure  of  the  rosebuds  was  localized  at  my  fingertips  and  palm,  as 
was  the  tactual  imagery  itself;  the  tiny  bars  of  light  which  appeared  in  con- 
nection with  the  roughness  of  the  ferns  and  the  white  silvery  area  which  ap- 
peared in  connection  with  the  coldness  of  the  ferns  were  likewise  localized  on 
my  right  hand.  The  size  of  the  visual  image  corresponded  to  the  area  of  the 
tactual  image  in  each  case.  The  tactual  imagery  appeared  suddenly  throughout, 
as  if  momentarily  suggested  by  the  experimenter's  words;  but  it  disappeared 
equally  as  suddenly.  At  no  time  was  I  conscious  of  kinaesthetic  imagery  of 
handling  the  buds  or  of  such  imagery  as  picking  up  the  box  or  its  contents. 
Neither  did  I  have  tactual  imagery  of  the  tips  of  the  buds  or  of  the  prick  or 
sharp  pressure  of  the  thorns.  This  imagery  I  can  recall,  now,  but  I  was  not 
aware  of  it  immediately  following  your  instructions." 

[Further  instructions:  You  mentioned  seeing  the  colors  which  stood  for  the 
experimenter's  voice.  Can  you  describe  the  behavior  of  your  attention  with 
respect  to  these  colors?] 

26.  Observer  A.  "During  the  experiment  just  performed  I  at  no  time  at- 
tended strictly  to  the  qualities  of  the  experimenter's  voice  as  he  read  the  instruc- 
tions. My  attention  was  centered  upon  the  meaning  of  the  words  as  it  seemed 
to  issue  from  the  resulting  imagery  which  at  once  appeared  and  which  I  have 
just  described  in  the  preceding  introspection.  Rather  than  being  aware,  non- 
f ocally,  of  the  sounds  of  the  experimenter 's  voice,  I  was  nonf ocally  conscious  of 
the  accompanying  colors.  The  colors  and  not  the  sounds  were  in  the  'back- 
ground' of  my  consciousness  while  I  was  experiencing  the  tactual-visual  im- 
agery. (Perhaps  I  can  make  this  clear  by  an  analogy.  Suppose  you  were 
looking  down  into  a  valley,  but  with  your  attention  focussed  upon  a  house  in 
the  foreground.  You  would  then  be  aware  only  non-focally  of  the  hills  in  the 
background.  In  similar  fashion  visual  imagery  of  the  experimenter's  voice  was 
present  but  was  in  the  margin  of  attention  as  well  as  in  the  margin  of  my  vis- 
ual field  and  it  was  not  attended  to,  focally,  at  any  time  during  the  experiment. 
It  lacked  definitenoss  and  I  noticed  no  details  in  the  imagery;  I  was  aware  only 
of  its  general  features  and  of  its  presence.  The  fact  which  I  noted  about  the 
experience  consisted  of  the  relative  position  of  the  imagery  in  my  visual  field 
and  that  this  position  was  in  a  direction  toward  the  experimenter  himself." 

[Further  instructions:  Can  you  describe  the  behavior  of  your  attention 
with  respect  to  the  presence  together  in  consciousness  of  your  tactual  and  visual 
imagery  of  the  rose  buds  and  fernsf] 

27.  Observer  A.  "  One  instant  I  was  awaro  of  tactual  qualities  but  in  this 
awareness  there  stands  out  no  definite  or  detaih'(l  item  or  characteristic  of  that 
quality.  It  is  merely  inferred  tactual  quality.  The  tactual  imagery  persists  in 
this  vague,  undifferentiated  fashion  only  long  enough  for  my  attention  to  shift 
to  visunl  qualities.  Thus  tlie  shift  of  attention,  in  this  case,  was  almost  instan- 
taneous, but  not  quite;  (I  am  doing  this  now,  as  I  introspect)  I  am  able  to 
concentrate  attention  upon  an  effort  to  prolong  this  tactual  imagery  in  which 
case  I  find  that  my  method  has  consisted  of  resorting  to  kinaesthetic  processes 
of  handling  the  buds  and  ferns.  But  no  sooner  does  this  kinaesthetic  imagery 
apjiear  when  my  attention  is  i-iaiiiu'tl  by  the  visual  associates  of  the  kinaesthetic 
imagery.  (Suppose,  for  example,  that  I  am  making  the  movement  of  inspecting 
the  heel  of  my  shoe.  I  first  obtain  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  reaching  down 
toward  my  foot  but  the  kinaesthetic  quality  at  once  gives  way,  during  a  rapid 
Bhift  of  attention,  to  the  blackish  streaks  which  accompany  the  motor  imagery. 

[39] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

And  if  I  attempt  to  single  out  the  kinaesthetic  quality  as  such  or  the  tactual 
qualities  as  such,  the  visual  associates  become  indistinct  and  tend  to  disappear 
altogether.  I  am  able,  I  have  often  observed,  to  attend  to  both  the  primary  and 
the  secondary  processes  at  the  same  time  but  only  for  the  smallest  fraction  of  a 
second  and  with  the  result  that  both  processes  tend  to  lose  their  identity. 
Unless  I  am  prepared,  by  the  proper  Aufgabe,  to  attend  to  both,  my  attention 
always  shifts  at  once  toward  the  visual  process  the  instant  the  primary  process 
appears.  Chronologicaly,  then,  the  primary  process,  under  the  proper  Aufgabe, 
does  appear  first,  but  so  long  as  it  persists  it  is  vague,  undifferentiated  and 
absolutely  impossible  to  describe  other  than  by  the  term   'something.'  "* 

28.  Observer  B.  Instructions  as  for  introspection  25.  "  I  was  able  at  once 
to  feel  the  softness  of  the  petals,  their  smoothness,  their  fineness  of  texture,  all 
of  which  features  were  localized,  in  tactual  terms,  at  my  finger  tips.  The  im- 
agery was  exceedingly  clear  and  real;  at  times  I  almost  thought  that  I  was 
getting  real  sensations ;  I  was  surprised  at  the  vividness  and  persistence  of  this 
imagery  and  at  its  minuteness  of  detail;  and  this  awareness,  together  with  kin- 
aesthetic  imagery  of  moving  my  fingers  about  over  the  buds,  made  it  almost 
impossible  for  mo  to  keep  my  fingers  still.  Sliifting  from  one  detail  to  another 
with  no  loss  in  vividness  and  with  continued  nicety  of  quality  my  attention 
went  from  the  edges  of  the  petals  as  they  curl  over,  to  the  pairs  of  petals  as 
one  extended  slightly  beyond  the  other  but  remained  very  close  to  it,  then  to  the 
masses  of  petals  in  the  center  of  the  bud.  There  then  followed  equally  as  vivid 
and  detailed  tactual  imngory  of  the  ferns,  of  the  edges  of  the  rose  leaves,  of 
the  fiat  surfaces  of  the  leaves,  and  of  the  edges  and  smooth  sides  of  the  box. 
This  latter  imagery  is  of  strikingly  different  quality,  however,  from  my  other 
tactual  imagery.  While  I  had,  in  tactual  terms,  the  sharpness  of  the  edge  of 
the  box  and  the  glassiness  or  fine  smoothness  of  the  sides  of  the  box,  there  is 
definitely  present  in  this  latter  imagery  a  hardness  which  does  not  characterize 
my  imagery  of  the  biids  and  ferns.  This  quality  of  hardness  does  not  seem  to 
be  entirely  tactual,  although  I  was  not  at  the  time  distinctly  aware  of  any  other 
definite  sensory  qualities.  I  believe,  however,  that  with  this  tactual  imagery  of 
the  box  there  appeared,  disguised  as  hardness,  some  kinaesthetic  factors  of  re- 
sistance. The  tactual  imagery  of  the  roses  possessed  the  softness  of  silk;  the 
smoothness  of  the  ferns  resembled  the  velvety  smoothness  of  thick,  heavy 
velour;  the  smoothness  of  the  box  suggested  a  glassy,  almost  slippery  surface 
and  was  characterized  by  the  firmness  or  resistance  of  a  hard  object.  There 
was  no  setting  in  connection  with  this  tactual  imagery  other  than  the  kinaes- 
thetic imagery  which  I  mentioned.  But  this  latter  was  mingled  throughout 
with  the  tactual." 

[Instructions:  Obtain  tactual  imagery  of  the  word  "dog"  written  in 
American  Braille.] 

29.  Observer  A.  "(I  can  readily  construct  this  tactual  imagery  but  not 
without  recourse,  first,  to  my  visual  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  the  letters  'd',  'o', 
and  'g. '     I  have  not  used  American  Braille  for  two  years.) 

Following  my  awareness  of  the  instructions  I  found  myself  visualizing  th« 
letters  of  the  word  'dog'  in  their  appropriate  colors.  There  first  appeared  vis- 
ual imagery  of  the  'd,'  then  of  the  'g, '  followed  by  the  'o;'  this  imagery  con- 
sisted of  small  areas  of  color  localized  off  in  space  a  short  distance  from  me — 
a  bluish-grey-green  for  the  'd,'  a  dusty-grey-green  for  the  'g, '  and  a  dark, 
smudgy  grey  for  the  'o.'  (I  believe  that  my  attention  shifted  from  the  'd'  to 
the  'g, '  skipping  the  'o'  for  the  reason  that  the  two  colors  are  very  similar.) 
After  this  imagery  had  once  appeared  it  shifted  its  position  to  a  region  nearer 

*In  certain  introspections  there  exists  an  apparent  confusion  in  terminology  when 
observer  A  speaks  of  tactual,  kinaesthetic,  or  auditory  imafrery  as  if  it  were,  as  such, 
present  to  his  consciousness.  It  has  been  necessary  to  retain  this  terminology  for  clear- 
ness in  meaning,  but  it  should  be  undei-stood  that,  throughout,  the  reagent  refers  to  an 
undifferentiated  and  indescribable  process  as  far  as  tactual  or  auditory  qualities  themselves 
are  concerned.  A  consciousness  of  auditory  cr  tactual  imagery  is  an  interpretation  de- 
pendent upon   the  functioning  of  the  accompanying  visual  process. 

[40  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

me  as  I  began  to  have  faint  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  moving  mj  finger  upward 
along  the  surface  of  a  piece  of  tag-board  and  over  what  might  have  been  some 
imagined  points.  At  this  juncture  the  visual  imagery  began  to  shape  itself  into 
the  general  forms  or  figures  which  would  be  made  by  the  arrangement  of  the 
points  of  the  Braille  letters  'd,'  *o/  and  'g.'  Even  up  to  this  time  I  was  un- 
able to  obtain  tactual  imagery  of  the  Braille  letters;  the  imagery  so  far  con- 
stituted my  efforts  in  this  direction.  I  then  had  kinaesthetic  imagerj'  of  moving 
my  finger  along  an  imagined  (visual)  tag-board  toward  these  visualized  forms 
whicli  were  now  iirojectcd  ui)on  the  yellow,  visualized  j)aper.  I  then  momen- 
tarily became  aware  of  tactual  imagery  of  the  'd. '  This  awareness  did  not 
consist  of  individual  pressures  from  the  points  which  constitute  a  Braille  *d' 
but  of  a  generalized  awareness  of  their  triangular  spacial  arrangement.  Even 
this  awarenes  of  a  triangular  shaped  form  is  an  interpretation  largely  from  the 
fact  that  in  this  tactual  image  my  attention  is  centered  not  upon  the  three 
sides  of  a  triangle  but  upon  the  position  in  the  spacial  figures  where  a  point  is 
missing,  which  point,  were  it  present,  would  form  a  square  with  the  other  three 
points.  This  tactual  image  was  localized  at  the  tip  of  my  right  fore-finger  and 
was  regular  'Braille'  size;  and  for  a  moment,  I  believe,  I  was  conscious  of  the 
more  or  less  punctiform  but  yet  blunt  character  of  the  imager}-,  although  at  no 
time  were  the  individual  points  recognized  as  such.  At  the  moment  my  atten- 
tion was  centered  upon  the  missing  point  the  tactual  image,  itself,  involved 
spacial  extent  but  this  spacial  feature  was  not  present  to  consciousness  as  such 
but  was  interpreted  in  terms  of  a  sudden  and  subsequent  shift  of  attention  to  a 
visualization  of  this  space  in  the  form  of  a  triangle.  Through  all  of  this  the 
colored  visual  imagery  which  had  previously  meant  to  me  that  I  was  trying  to 
obtain  tactual  imagery  of  the  'd'  persisted  and  at  this  juncture  of  my  proced- 
ure it  was  this  visualized  'd'  which  assumed  the  triangular  shape.  My  tactual 
images  of  the  'o'  and  of  the  'g'  wore  less  distinct  for  here  the  visual  features 
of  the  experience  claimed  attention  throughout;  there  were  no  shifts  to  tactual 
qualities  as  occurred  in  connection  with  the  'd'.  In  each  case  I  had  visual  im- 
agery of  these  letters  localized  as  was  the  visual  imagery  of  the  'd';  the  *g' 
was  fairly  definite  with  respect  to  color  and  localization;  the  points  of  the  'g' 
stood  out  as  pane-like  sections  of  light  grey-green.  What  would  correspond  to 
the  sash  of  this  window-like  figure  consisted  of  tiny  bands  of  neutral  grey;  the 
whole  visual  image  was  projected  upon  a  neutral  grey  background.  (By  this 
time  the  yellow  tag-board  had  disappeared.)  My  attention  was  then  claimed 
by  the  visual  imagery  of  the  *o'  which  now  deflnitized  into  a  short  oblique  line, 
colored,  and  slanting  in  the  direction  of  the  points  which  form  the  Braille  'o.' 
The  up]>t'r  j)ortion  of  this  oblique  line,  which  corresponded  to  the  upper  point 
of  the  Braille  letter,  tended  to  take  on  the  yellow  of  the  tag-board,  which  now 
tended  to  become  visualized ;  the  lower  section  of  this  oblique  line  was  dark, 
simiiltry  and  almost  I)lack — my  .synaesthesia  for  'o'.  Then  T  found  my  visual 
attention  wandering  from  these  letters  to  the  visual  background  of  neutral 
grey.  All  of  the  imagery  which  I  have  just  described  was  very  fleeting  and 
appeared  with  lightning-like  rapidity,  although,  throughout  the  entire  exper- 
ience, the  qualities  or  hues  of  the  letters  i)ersisted.  ,\s  my  attention  shifted 
(luring  the  latter  ])art  of  the  oxiterionce  to  the  visual  background,  the  individ- 
ual colors  which  stood  for  the  letters  disappeared  and  there  was  left  only  a 
vaguely  visualized  section  of  a  piece  of  tag-board.  The  area  thus  occupied  by 
the  letters  now  contained  only  the  yellowish-grey  of  the  paper  upon  which  I 
had  been  projecting  the  letters  themselves." 

30.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  "  As  soon  as  I  perceived  the  instruc- 
tions I  at  once  had  a  mass  of  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  the  letters, 
of  arm  and  finger  movement  and  of  the  paper  on  which  the  points  were 
punched.  There  first  appeared  tactual  imagery  of  smooth  tag-board  together 
with  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  moving  my  finger  from  left  to  right  along  the 
surface  of  this  paper  as  if  I  were  about  to  approach  a  Braille  letter.  I  was 
then  conscious  of  very  vivid  and  intense  tactual  imagery,  blunt  and  yet  limited 

[41] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

almost  to  a  point,  of  the  first  dot  of  the  letter  'd';  this  image  was  localized 
rather  at  the  side  of  my  finger  than  at  the  very  tip  just  as  the  actual  sensation 
would  have  been  perceived  had  I  come  upon  the  point  with  actual  finger  move- 
ment. This  was  immediately  followed  by  equally  as  vivid  and  definitely  local- 
ized tactual  imagery  of  the  remaining  points  of  the  'd'.  For  a  brief  instant, 
in  this  latter  imagery,  the  individual  points  did  not  stand  out,  but  they  soon 
became  definitized  and  arranged  in  the  characteristic  grouping  of  the  'd. '  In 
the  tactual  image  itself  I  found  that  my  attention,  however,  was  not  focussed 
upon  the  pressure  qualities  nor  upon  the  triangular  shape  of  the  spacial  ar- 
rangement of  points  but  upon  that  region  in  the  figure  where  a  fourth  dot 
would  be  if  the  figure  were  a  square.  [Notice  that  Observer  A  reported  the 
same  experience  in  introspection  29.]  There  then  occurred  kinaesthetic  imagery 
of  moving  my  finger  to  the  right  in  the  direction  of  what  would  have  been  the 
next  letter  of  the  word  'dog'  had  I  been  obtaining  the  word  in  perceptual 
fashion.  This  was  closely  followed  by  tactual  imagery  first  of  the  right  hand 
point  of  the  'o'  and  secondly  of  both  points;  at  this  juncture  the  two  points 
appeared  in  their  proper  spacial  relations,  forming  an  oblique  line  extending 
downward  from  left  to  right.  Tactual  imagery  of  the  *g'  followed  immediately 
in  similar  fashion  except  that  the  behavior  of  my  attention  differed  slightly. 
The  imagery  itself  was  as  clear  and  as  definitely  localized  as  was  the  former  im- 
agery, but  as  I  had  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  moving  toward  the  right  I  obtained 
tactual  imagery  of  not  one  point  alone,  as  before,  but  of  two  points,  and  these 
points  appeared  spacially  grouped  as  they  were  being  imagined.  Here  I  was 
not  aware  of  the  pressure  qualities  as  such  but  of  the  spacial  grouping  as  such. 
That  is,  I  imagined  them  as  a  bar,  not  as  two  points.  Following  immediately 
upon  this  and  so  rapidly  that  the  two  experiences  were  almost  simultaneous,  the 
bar  thus  imaged  developed  into  a  tactual  square.  Here,  again,  it  was  the 
spacial  arrangement  of  the  points  and  not  the  distinct  and  sejjarated  points 
themselves  which  stood  out  in  focal  attention.  Yet  the  entire  imagery  possessed 
as  much  clearness  and  definiteness  of  localization  at  the  end  of  my  finger  as  did 
the  previous  imagery  in  which  the  points  stood  out  for  a  time  as  separate  blunt- 
nesses.  All  of  this  happened  very  quickly  and  had  no  sooner  taken  place  than 
I  found  myself  tending  toward  incipient  movements,  localized  in  the  arms  and 
shoulders,  of  making  large,  sweeping  motions  as  if  I  were  about  to  draw  en- 
larged letters  of  solid  lines  instead  of  making  these  letters  of  points.  I  noticed 
that  my  tactual  imagery  developed  very  suddenly  to  a  high  degree  of  focality 
and  that  it  shifted  exceedingly  rapidly  from  one  detail  to  another  with  no  per- 
ceptible break  in  between.  As  one  detail  in  the  tactual  imagery  gained  clear- 
ness the  shift  was  so  rapid  to  the  next  detail  that  I  noticed  no  perceptible  dim- 
inishing in  clearness  of  the  preceding  detail  before  I  was  focally  conscious  of 
the  succeeding  detail.  Each  letter  was  accompanied  by  incipient  vocal-motor 
tendencies  to  pronounce  it." 

a.  Summary  of  introspective  data  on  tactual  imagery. 

Observer  A.  A  study  of  A's  descriptions  of  his  tactual  imagery- 
would  lead  one  to  conclude  that  his  ability  to  image  the  "feel"  of 
objects  is  as  limited  as  we  found  his  ability  to  image  sounds. 
Tactual  qualities  themselves  are  vague  and  undifferentiated  as 
was  his  auditory  imagery.  Tactual  imagery  is  fleeting,  discon- 
nected, rather  lacking  in  detail  and  unstable.  Every  detail  has 
its  visual  counterpart  in  synaesthetic  imagery  and  every  tactual 
image  at  once  gives  way  to  this  visual  accompanimeiit.  The  san^p 
shift  of  attention  from  tactual  to  visual  qualities  appears  in  his 

[42] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

tactual  imagery  as  took  place  from  auditory  to  visual  qualities  in 
his  auditory  imagery.  Thus,  like  his  auditory  imagery,  his  tac- 
tual processes  are  broken  into  disconnected  series  by  repeated 
shifts  to  the  visual  accompaniments  even  when  tactual  imagery 
itself  appears  in  relatively  prolonged  series. 

As  was  the  case  in  auditory  imagery,  A's  attention  does  not 
shift  from  one  tactual  quality  directly  to  another  tactual  quality 
but  from  a  tactual  to  a  visual  image  and  then  back  to  a  tactual 
image  again.  Only  by  voluntary  effort  which  involves  kinaesthetic 
imagery  and  incipient  muscular  movement  is  A  able  to  inhibit  this 
tendency  to  shift  from  a  tactual  to  a  visual  quality  whenever  a 
tactual  image  appears  in  consciousness.  But  under  these  circum- 
stances, attention  never  lingers  focally  upon  tactual  qualities  as 
such  but  at  once  shifts  to  the  kinaesthesis  of  attention  and  hence 
over  into  visual  processes  again.  In  other  words  we  find  a  dupli- 
cation of  the  situation  which  obtained  for  auditory  imagery,  name- 
ly, that  a  tactual  image  as  such  is  never  the  object  of  focalized 
attention. 

As  with  his  auditory  imagery,  visual  associates  persist  longer 
in  consciousness  than  do  the  combined  tactual  and  visual  processes. 
It  is  not  uncommon  that  a  tactual  image  itself  is  ushered  into  con- 
sciousness by  means  of  its  visual  associate.  The  Aufgabe  to  recall 
tactual  imagery  results  at  first  in  the  arousal  of  combined  tactual 
and  visual  complexes  but  if  the  process  of  fulfilling  the  instruc- 
tions be  prolonged  all  tactual  qualities  tend  to  disappear  with  the 
result  that  the  detached  visual  symbols  represent  the  tactual  qual- 
ities in  the  absence  of  the  latter.  "We  found  the  same  to  be  true 
in  his  auditory  imagery. 

If  a  tactual  complex  such  as  a  combination  of  pressure  and  cold 
was  being  experienced  in  terms  of  imagery  the  dominating  feature 
in  the  complex  determined  the  resulting  color  or  brightness.  Thus 
when  observer  A  had  tactual  imagery  of  both  the  pressure  and  the 
coldness  of  the  ferns  in  introspection  25,  it  was  the  coldness  which 
dominated  in  the  complex  and  which  determined  the  synaesthetic 
image.  Tactual  and  kinaesthetic  blends,  such  as  roughness,  wet- 
ness, dryness  and  the  like,  have  peculiar  synaesthetic  associates  of 
their  own.  For  example,  in  introspection  25,  A  described  his 
visual  imagery  of  roughness  as  darting  rays  or  bands  of  light  which 
resembled  in  size  and  behavior  what  might  have  been  sparkles  from 
a  very  large  diamond. 

[43] 


The  Syndesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

Observer  B.  B  *s  tactual  images  are  exceedingly  clear,  persistent 
and  real.  In  their  quality  and  vividness  they  often  closely  ap- 
proximate actual  sehsations.  Other  prominent  features  of  his 
tactual  images  consist  of  their  wealth  of  qualitative  detail,  exact- 
ness of  localization,  the  readiness  with  which  long  trains  or  suc- 
cessions of  this  imagery  are  aroused  and  the  exceeding  rapidity 
with  which  attention  shifts  from  one  focal  detail  to  another  with  no 
apparent  loss  in  clearness,  the  clarity  with  which  spacial  extents 
stand  out  in  this  imagery,  and  the  distinctness  with  which  qualities 
retain  their  identity  in  complex  groupings.  The  Aufgabe  to  recall 
tactual  imagery  of  objects  gives  rise  at  once  to  complex  groupings 
and  successions  of  tactual  images,  together  with  kinaesthetic  imag- 
ery and  incipient  muscular  movements  of  handling  the  objects  thus 
imaged  in  tactual  fashion.  Tactual  imagery,  then,  appears  in  a 
rich,  kinaesthetic  setting.  It  is  evident  that  one  tactual  im^e 
readily  leads  to  another,  with  no  apparent  break  in  continuity  of 
tactual  qualities.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  tactual  images, 
themselves,  develop  much  as  tactual  perceptions  develop.  As  a 
taetuttl  image  begins  to  run  its  course  there  may  first  appear  but 
one  detail  Or  bne  isolated  featurie  of  the  object  which  is  to  be  imaged 
whereupon  further  details  at  once  appear,  resulting  in  a  full- 
fledged  image  which  takes  in  not  only  the  later  elements  to  appear 
but  also  the  earlier  ones.  Thus  his  imagery  of  a  Braille  letter 
began  with  pressure  images  of  but  one  point  of  the  letter;  this  led 
immediately  to  imagery  of  additional  points  iand  to  a  subsequent 
arrangement  of  all  the  points  into  the  appropriate  spacial  grouping. 
A  clear  and  definite  tactual  image  of  a  Braille  letter  includes  the 
same  behavior  of  attention  as  occurs  in  the  perceiving  of  such  a 
letter.  When  the  image  has  developed  to  its  final  stage,  individual 
points  lose  their  identity;  within  the  image  they  no  longer  stand 
out  as  separate  points ;  attention  ignores  the  individual  blunt  pres- 
sures and  is  concerned  wholly  with  their  spacial  arrangement. 
Thus  it  would  appear  that  if  an  image  of  a  complex  object  is  to  be 
complete  there  takes  place  in  the  development  of  this  image  a  shift 
from  individual  elements  or  ingredients  to  a  fusion  or  synthesis  of 
these  elements,  just  as  takes  place  in  the  development  of  a  percep- 
tion. This  shift  is  equally  as  rapid  and  as  difficult  to  describe  in 
the  imaginal  field  as  in  the  perceptual  field.  This  growth  of  a 
full-fl«dged  image  suggests  that  in  the  field  of  the  so-called  cen- 
trally aroused  processes  we  find  a  difference  between  image  and 

[44] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

idea  which  corresponds  to  the  difference  between  sensation  and 
perception  in  processes  which  are  peripherally  aroused.  Let  us 
call  the  individual  elements — the  separate  bluntnesses — which  go  to 
make  up  a  full-fledged  tactual  image  of  a  Braille  letter  the  image 
elements,  and  let  us  call  the  image  in  its  final  stage  of  development 
an  idea  of  the  Braille  letter.  Thus  we  have  images  corresponding 
to  individual  Braille  points  and  a  fusion  or  organization  of  these 
images  into  an  idea  which  corresponds  to  the  perception  of  the 
Braille  letter  as  a  whole.  In  the  shift  from  image  to  idea  there 
develops  a  spacialized  grouping  or  arrangement  of  the  points  just 
as  there  develops,  in  the  act  of  perceiving  a  Braille  letter,  this 
same  grouping  or  arrangement  of  points.  The  criterion  of  an  idea 
as  offset  against  an  image  thus  consists  of  the  same  sort  of  blending 
or  fusing  process  as  takes  place  in  acts  of  perceiving.  This  be- 
havior of  attention  in  the  development  of  a  full-fledged  image  is 
but  another  way  of  describing  the  development  of  meaning  in  the 
image. 

m.  Tactual  imagery  of  A  and  B  compared. 

1.  B*s  tactual  imagery  far  exceeds  A's  in  complexity  of  quali- 
tative detail,  clearness,  intensity,  range  of  variety,  and  in  con- 
tinuity of  function  in  groups  and  successions. 

2.  There  is  observable  in  B'g  case  a  tendency  for  tactual  imag- 
ery to  give  way  ultimately  to  kinaesthetic  processes,  while  in  A't 
case  tactual  imagery  gives  way  at  once  to  visual  imagery. 

3.  The  setting  for  B  's  tactual  processes  is  kinaesthetic ;  the  set- 
ting for  A*s  tactual  imagery  is  visual.  These  settings  vary  in 
their  function,  however.  A's  visual  imagery  appears  concomit- 
antly with  his  tactual  processes ;  it  functions  both  in  the  focus  and 
the  fringe  of  consciousness  while  tactual  processes  are  present. 
But  in  B's  case  kinaesthetic  imagery  is  largely  relegated  to  the 
background  of  consciousness,  under  the  Aufgabe  to  recall  tactual 
imagery;  and  in  his  case  kinaesthetic  processes  do  not  function  as 
identifyers  or  as  labels  for  his  tactual  processes;  the  latter  stand 
for  themselves  and  occupy  the  focus  of  his  attention,  as  such. 
Tactual  imagery,  as  such,  never  occupies  the  focus  of  A's  attention. 
In  other  words  B's  motor  imagery  does  not  "interpret"  his  tactual 
imagery  and  is  not  inevitably  a  concomitant  of  the  latter  while  A 's 
visual  imagery  "belongs"  to  the  tactual  and  the  visual  tends  to 
take  the  place  of  the  tactual  at  all  times  and  under  all  conditions. 

[45] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

While  B  is  attending  to  tactual  qualities,  A  is  ignoring  them,  as 
such,  and  is  attending  to  visual  qualities.  The  quality  of  pressure, 
in  B's  tactual  imagery,  is  a  quality  of  pressure  and  nothing  more. 
The  quality  of  pressure  in  A's  tactual  imagery  is,  in  part,  a  visual 
image,  in  that  the  pressure  is  not  identified  in  the  absence  of  the 
visual  process.  The  essential  difference  between  A  and  B  lies  in 
the  act  of  becoming  conscious  of  tactual  imagery.  A  resorts  to 
visual  criteria  while  B  resorts  to  tactual  criteria. 

4.  There  is  a  further  difference  between  A  and  B  as  far  as  their 
tactual  imagery  is  concerned.  We  have  already  described,  on 
page  44,  how  tactual  imagery  develops  or  becomes  full-fledged 
in  B's  case.  This  process  of  growth  in  A's  case  does  not  involve  a 
grouping  or  arranging  of  identified  bluntnesses  or  points  which 
blend  or  fuse  into  a  purely  tactual,  spacial  extent.  This  grouping, 
in  A's  case,  involves  a  dual  growth  of  tactual  and  visual  processes, 
with  the  reagent's  attention  focused  upon  the  visual  half  of  the 
experience.  In  other  words,  step  by  step,  in  the  development  of 
a  tactual  image  there  takes  place  a  corresponding  development  in 
visual  imagery  and  the  latter  throughout  interpret  or  identify  the 
developing  stages  of  the  former.  Thus,  as  A  was  aware  of  the 
growing  tactual  image  of  the  Braille  d  described  in  introspection 
25,  this  awareness  was  always  focally  a  visual  consciousness.  We 
found  that  in  B's  case  the  meaning  of  d  developed  with  this  blend- 
ing or  fusion  of  discrete  points  into  a  spacial  schema  and  that  the 
spacial  schema  was  inherently  and  focally  tactual,  plus  kinaesthetic 
imagery.  The  corresponding  development  of  a  meaningful  d  in 
A's  case  involved  a  growth  of  visual  processes.  The  d  was  not 
complete  until  the  bluish-green  synaesthetic  image  had  assumed  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  figure  d.  In  B's  case  the  meaning  was  tac- 
tual-kinaesthetic ;  in  A's  case  it  was  tactual-visual. 

5.  These  points  of  difference  identify  B  as  an  asynaestlietic  in- 
dividual and  -<4  as  a  synaesthetic  individual. 

iv.  Significance  of  synaesthetic  imagery  in  A's  tactual  processes. 

As  a  result  of  his  synaesthetic  processes  A  does  not  live  in  a 
world  of  tactual  and  motor  phenomena  as  such.  His  tactual  and 
motor  world  is  also  visual.  It  has  now  become  evident  that  while 
tactual  imagery  is  present  in  A's  consciousness,  this  imagery  pos- 
sesses no  distinct  and  concrete  qualities  or  features  of  its  own.  The 
size  and  shape  of  tactual  images  are  represented  by  a  correspoi;iding 

r46i 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

size  and  shape  in  the  visual  accompaniment ;  for  every  implied  tac- 
tual quality  there  is  a  corresponding  hue  or  brightness  in  the  visual 
associate;  duration  and  intensity  of  tactual  images  have  their 
visual  counterparts  in  duration  and  brightness  of  the  colored  asso- 
ciate. The  important  feature  of  this  synaesthetic  process  lies  in 
the  fact  that  a  color  or  brightness  is  selected,  in  A's  behavior  of 
attention,  as  the  feature  of  the  experience  which  is  attended-to 
rather  than  a  tactual  quality  or  attribute  per  se.  Tactual  imagery 
cannot  stand  alone  in  consciousness  and  he  tactual  imagery.  As 
long  as  a  tactual  process  is  unaccompanied  by  a  visual  image  the 
former  is  a  diffuse,  vague,  and  unidentified  experience. 

This  suggests  that  all  imagery,  even  in  the  asynaesthetic  indi- 
vidual, undergoes  an  implicit  process  of  identification  if  it  is  to 
become  imagery  of  any  given  type,  variety,  or  quality,  or  if  it  is  to 
possess  meaning.  This  implicit  process  of  identification  or  recog- 
nition is  very  obscure  and  attenuated  in  the  asynaesthetic  indi- 
vidual and  because  of  frequent  repetition  or  because  of  the  fact 
that  the  identified  and  the  identifying  processes  take  place  so 
quickly  in  rapid  succession  or  perhaps  blend,  the  identification 
process  is  not  always  introspectively  observable.  But  in  the  syn- 
aesthetic individual  the  process  of  identification  is  always  explicit 
and  observable  because  the  identified  process  is  derived  from  one 
sense  modality  and  the  identifying  process  from  another  sense 
modality.  Thus  when  observer  B  has  a  tactual  image  of  rough- 
ness, that  quality,  as  such,  stands  out  focally  in  consciousness;  the 
experience  is  one  of  roughness;  the  identification  or  recognition 
implied  by  the  "of"  is  actually  implicit.  The  processes  identified 
are  pressure  images;  the  identifying  process  consists  of  a  peculiar 
behavior  of  attention  characterized,  perhaps,  by  a  mass  of  rapid 
shiftings  from  one  discrete  tactual  image  of  a  certain  clearness  and 
intensity  to  an  immediately  adjacent  tactual  image  of  another 
clearness  and  intensity.  But  in  A's  case  the  experience  is  not  one 
of  roughness  as  observer  B  knows  roughness ;  the  qualtiy  of  rough- 
ness as  such  does  not  develop ;  the  identification  implied  by  the 
"of"  is  here  explicit.  The  processes  identified  are  pressure 
images  as  in  the  case  of  B;  but  the  identifying  process  consists  of 
a  shift  of  attention  not  from  one  tactual  image  to  another  but  from 
a  tactual  to  a  visual  image.  In  implicit  identification  tactual  pro- 
cesses in  a  way  identify  each  other,  in  part,  by  means  of  attention 
shifts  from  one  to  another;  in  explicit  identification  the  tactual 

[47] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

process  is  identified  by  a  visual  image.  The  functioning  of  the 
processes  in  both  instances  is  the  same  but  the  mental  contents  in- 
volved differ  radically. 

We  must  not  confuse  this  synaesthetic  process  with  the  visual 
imagery  used  by  an  asynaesthetic  individual  in  attending  to  tactual 
imagery.  An  asynaesthetic  person  may  tend  to  experience  visual 
imagery  when  he  experiences  a  localized  tactual  image  but  here 
the  tactual  features  of  the  experience  may  occupy  the  focus  of  at- 
tention with  the  visual  imagery  entirely  non-focal.  The  tactual 
feature  remains  dominant  so  long  as  the  tactual  imagery  persists 
and  the  visualization  of  the  region  where  the  tactual  imagery  is 
projected  always  remains  a  secondary  process.  It  may  very  well 
turn  out  that  this  secondary  visual  image  assists,  while  it  is  present, 
in  definitizing  the  region  where  the  tactual  image  is  projected 
but  the  visual  image  itself  can  hardly  be  said  to  identify  the  tactual 
process,  as  it  does  in  the  synaesthetic  individual.  The  sjTiaesthetic 
character  of  A's  visual  imagery  exceeds  a  mere  tendency  to  localize 
the  tactual  process,  visually,  for  in  addition  to  this  tendency  to 
visually  localize  the  tactual  image,  the  quality  of  the  latter  and  in 
fact  its  entire  behavior  are  visualized. 

From  A's  field  of  tactual  imagery  we  therefore  obtain  added 
evidence  of  the  possible  view  that  synaesthesis  is  not  only  a  per- 
ceptual process  but  that  it  is  an  imaginal  process  as  well;  further- 
more we  find  that  synaesthesis  is  not  different,  functionally,  from 
processes  which  occur  in  an  asjiiaesthetic  individual.  Introspec- 
tions on  tactual  imagery  furnish  supplementary  evidence  in  favor 
of  the  conception  that  synaesthesis  is  essentially  a  process  of  de- 
riving meaning  from  sensory  data. 

d.  Kinaesthetic  imagery.    (Series  1  concluded.) 

i.  Typical  introspective  data. 

[Instructions:  Eecall  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  tying  your  tie.] 
31.  Observer  A.  "  (I  found  that  I  could  obtain  motor  imagery  of  move- 
ments of  my  right  arm  but  not  of  my  left.  All  I  could  obtain  of  the  latter  were 
the  detached  visual  associates.)  As  the  experimenter  read  the  instructions  I 
was  first  aware  of  visual  imagery  of  my  collar,  localized  in  its  position  around 
my  neck,  with  the  long  end  of  a  tie  extending  downward  in  front.  Although 
the  collar  was  white,  no  other  feature  or  detail  stood  out  prominently  in  the 
image  other  than  its  vague  shape  and  its  band-like  form;  the  tie  was  a  very 
dark  grey  tinged  with  brown.  There  then  followed  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  my 
right  arm  making  the  movement  of  throwing  the  long  end  of  the  tie  over  the 
short  end;  for  a  moment  only  was  this  imagery  clear;  attention  shifted  almost 
at  once  to  a  black  visual  streak  which  took  the  form  of  a  curve  corresponding 

[48] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

to  the  extent  and  direction  of  the  kinaesthetic  image.  Then  I  had  motor  im- 
agery of  reaching  under  the  twiated  portion  of  the  tie  with  the  long  end  but 
before  this  imagery  reached  the  stage  of  pushing  the  long  end  up  through  thq 
knot  the  motor  features  had  shifted  entirely  to  the  black,  visual,  synaesthetic 
imagery.  There  started  to  develop  at  this  juncture  \-ague  tactual  imagery  of 
the  softness  of  the  tie  as  it  seemed  to  rest  between  my  thumb  and  fingers,  but 
this,  also,  shifted  immediately  to  its  visual  associate.  There  then  occurred  com- 
bined tactual  and  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  reaching  into  tlie  'v'  shaped  knot 
from  above,  as  if  to  grasp  the  long  end  of  the  tie  to  pull  it  through  the  loop. 
For  an  instant  the  kinaesthetic  qiuility  of  movement  loomed  up  in  fairly  focal 
attention,  when  I  experienced  the  kinaesthetic  imago  of  pushing  the  long  end 
of  the  tie  through  the  knot  and  of  pulling  it  tight.  The  motor  quality  which 
became  momentarily  dominant  was  the  sudden  jerk  or  pull  of  tightening  the 
knot  itself.  Otherwise  the  kinaesthetic  quality  tended  to  be  dominated  by  the 
visual  black.  And  just  as  this  motor  jerk  developed  the  visual  synaesthetic 
accompaniment  became  blacker.  I  noticed  that  throughout  the  entire  process 
this  imagery  was  localized  in  my  right  ami  and  hand;  I  tried  to  attend  to 
movements  of  my  left  arm,  but  had  only  the  visual  streaks  which  represented  in 
terms  of  their  own  localizations  and  directions  of  movement  how  my  left  arm 
would  operate  in  tying  a  tie.  Kinaesthetic  imagery  was  throughout  broken  into 
disconnected  sections  by  repeated  shifts  of  attention  to  the  visual  accompani- 
ments. I  further  noticed  that  it  was  when  I  tried  the  liardest  to  isolate  or 
single  out  the  kinaesthetic  quality  of  the  imagery  that  the  visual  processes  dom- 
inated most.  The  motor  imagery  was  localized  in  my  elbow,  wrist,  and  finger 
joints.  The  chief  quality  of  the  imagery  was  that  of  change  in  position  with 
strain  appearing  only  when  I  imaged  the  pull  or  tug  of  tightening  the  knot." 
[Instructions:  Describe  the  maze  which  you  have  recently  learned  and  re- 
call the  movements  of  tracing  the  paths.] 

32.  Observer  Ji.  "  The  maze  was  a  grooved  figure  cut  from  a  sheet  of  tin 
and  tacked  to  a  smooth  boanl.  1  was  aware,  first,  of  tactual  imagery  of  the 
stylus  as  it  rested  between  my  fingers  with  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  grasping  it ; 
the  kinaesthetic  processes  were  the  more  definite  and  persistent  and  involved 
imagery  of  finger  positions  and  tenseness  about  the  wrist  and  arms.  In  terms 
of  very  clear  kinaesthetic  imagery  I  was  able  to  recall  practically  every  move- 
ment of  tracing  the  maze;  the  imagery  was  always  that  of  movenuMit  and  was 
definitely  localized  in  my  hand,  arm  and  wrist.  I  vividly  felt  the  constantly 
changing  positions,  now  down,  now  up,  now  around  a  sharp  angle.  Throughout, 
these  changes  occurred  in  rapid  succession,  one  image  blending  imperceptibly 
into  the  next;  the  imagery  was  very  stable,  clear,  and  persistent,  with  no 
breaks  or  interruptions.  At  the  end  of  the  maze  I  had  very  vivid  motor  im- 
agery of  the  resistance  encountered  as  the  stylus  came  into  imagined  contact 
with  the  termination  of  the  pathway.  This  latter  imagery  develoi)ed  suddenly 
and  rose  to  a  high  degree  of  foeality,  just  as  the  actvial  poroe])tion  wouM  have 
done.  Although  there  were  sounds  made  in  actually  tracing  the  maze,  I  had 
no  suggestion  of  auditory  inuigery  in  this  recall,  ("onsciousness  was  occupied 
almost  entirely  with  nuitor  processes  with  only  now  and  then  a  suggestion  of 
tactual  imagery." 

[Instructions:  Can  you  recall  motor  imagery  of  the  maze  which  you 
learned  three  years  ago?] 

33.  Observer  A.  "(After  some  little  time,  during  which  I  was  visualizing 
a  very  vague  and  fleeting  maze,  I  think  I  succeeded  in  recjilling  a  few  isolated 
movements.)  First  I  was  aware  of  kinaesthetic  inuigery  of  holding  my  arm  out 
in  front  of  me,  together  with  tactual-motor-visual  imagery  of  holding  a  stylus 
in  my  hand,  but  all  of  this  was  very  vjigue  and  of  short  duration.  .Vttention 
was  then  absorbed  for  several  see(ni<ls  in  vague,  varying,  and  fleeting  visual 
imagery   of   portions   of   the   maze.      There   then   ai>peared    in   consciousness   a 

[49] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

motor-visual  image  ef  making  one  of  the  long  and  difficult  movements  in  the 
maze,  but  the  motor  qualities  were  very  weak,  diffuse  and  vague,  dominated 
almost  entirely  by  the  accompanying  visual  black  which  appeared  as  a  devel- 
oping streak  over  a  fairly  wide  space  in  front  of  me  and  in  about  the  same 
position  as  the  maze  would  have  been.  I  then  recalled  that  I  had  great  diffi- 
culty in  learning  this  movement  for  the  reason  that  I  had  to  come  down  a 
straight  path  toward  me  and  I  had  the  tendency  to  make  that  movement  in  the 
form  of  an  arc,  thus  making  a  great  many  errors.  The  motor  features  of  thia 
kinaesthetic  image  were  localized  in  my  shoulder,  elbow  and  wrist  and  slightly 
in  the  muscles  of  the  fore-arm.  The  former  possessed  the  quality  of  movement 
while  the  latter  qualities  suggested  strain  or  tension.  Together  with  this  im- 
agery I  was  aware  of  incipient  tensions  developing  about  the  jaws  and  in  my 
throat — the  processes  which  always  appeared  when  I  was  conscious  of  making 
a  great  many  errors  while  tracing  the  maze.  The  usual  blackness  of  the  kin- 
aesthetic  processes  appeared  and  tended  to  claim  my  attention.  The  tenseness 
in  my  throat,  jaw,  and  somewhat  in  my  chest,  was  accompanied  by  black  visual 
imagery  localized  as  was  the  kinaesthetic  imagery  itself.  The  localization  of 
the  motor  qualities,  however,  was  invariably  less  definite  than  the  localization 
of  the  visual  black.  There  was  a  diffuseness,  vagueness  and  uncertainty  about 
the  motor  processes  which  seems  to  be  compensated  for  by  the  visual  associates." 
[Instructions:  Recall  writing  with  the  point  alphabet  and  describe  the 
imagery  involved.] 

34.  Observer  B.  ''First  I  had  tactual  imagery  of  the  slate  beneath  my 
hand,  vague  auditory  imagery  of  the  sound  from  the  stylus  as  it  punched  holes 
in  the  paper,  and  very  clear,  definite  and  persistent  kinaesthetic  imagery  of 
making  the  movements  of  hand  and  fingers  as  one  punches  holes  in  the  tag- 
board;  the  auditory  and  tactual  imagery  was  much  less  clear  and  real  than  the 
kinaesthetic.  Clearest  of  all  in  the  motor  imagery  were  the  movements  of  press- 
ing down  on  the  stylus  and  of  moving  my  hand  along  to  the  next  position  from 
which  the  next  hole  is  to  be  punched.  All  of  this  kinaesthetic  imagery  was  ac- 
companied by  incipient  movements;  in  fact  the  reality  of  the  motor  imagery 
seemed  to  be  proportional  to  the  amount  of  incipient  movement  involved  or  to 
the  extent  that  I  actually  felt  incipient  tensions.  These  processes  were  fol- 
lowed by  very  vivid  and  persisting  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  lifting  the  slate 
and  of  placing  it  in  a  lower  position  on  the  paper;  this  latter  imagery  involved 
hand,  elbow  and  shoulder.  Just  as  I  imaged  myself  lifting  the  plate  in  terms 
of  motor  imagery,  I  had  faint  tactual  imagery  of  the  slate  between  my  fingers, 
attention,  in  this  latter  imgery,  being  centered  upon  the  perforations  in  the 
elate." 

[Instructions:     Recall  the  movements  of  throwing  a  ball.     Describe  them.] 

35.  Observer  A.  "(1  can  do  this  only  by  standing  up  and  assuming  a  posi- 
tion as  if  I  were  about  to  throw  a  ball.  Otherwise  my  motor  imagery  resolves 
itself  into  nothing  but  the  visual  associates.)  I  then  had,  first,  a  visual  image 
of  a  baseball  in  my  hand,  both  the  ball  and  the  hand  standing  out  clearly  in  this 
imagery  and  localized  in  the  beginning  stage  of  the  throwing  position.  This 
was  followed  by  tactual  imagery  of  the  ball,  chiefly  localized  between  my 
thumb  and  first  two  fingers.  The  first  real  kinaesthetic  image  was  that  of 
swinging  my  arm  back  into  position  to  thrust  the  ball  forward;  this  was  local- 
ized in  my  elbow  and  shoulder,  principally  the  latter;  there  then  followed  motor 
imagery  of  tightening  the  biceps,  very  definitely  localized  for  an  instant  in.  my 
biceps  and  followed  at  once  by  a  shift  of  attention  to  the  intense  black  region 
in  the  upper  arm — my  synaesthetic  image.  Then  I  found  my  attention  claimed 
by  a  mass  of  black  visual  imagery  covering  my  chest,  back  and  sides,  but  I  was 
unable  to  isolate  the  kinaesthetic  elements.  This  meant  to  me,  however,  motor 
imagery  of  making  the  final  contractions  before  letting  the  ball  go.  I  could 
not  obtain  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  releasing  the  ball  but  was  conscious  of  very 
fleeting  and  sketchy  tactual  imagery  of  the  ball  as  it  was  leaving  my  hand." 

[50] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

36.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  "First  I  had  very  clear  and  intense 
tactual  imagery  of  the  ball  lying  in  my  hand,  loosely  grasped.  Then  followed 
in  very  rapid  succession,  in  terms  of  kinaesthetic  imagery,  tightening  my  grasp 
upon  the  ball,  drawing  my  arm  back,  swinging  my  whole  arm  around  once  or 
twice  and  then  thrusting  it  forward  suddenly  as  if  to  release  the  ball.  Most 
vivid  of  all  was  imagery  of  the  slipping  or  grinding  at  the  shoulder  joints  and 
the  quick  thrust  of  the  forward  jerk  of  my  arm.  The  finger  movements  of 
releasing  the  ball  also  stood  out  very  prominently.  All  of  this  was  followed 
by  imagery  of  muscular  tenseness  localized  in  my  neck  and  chest  of  anticipating 
the  sound  of  the  ball  striking  against  the  mit  of  the  person  who,  by  implica- 
tion, was  to  catch  the  ball.  Along  with  these  processes  there  appeared  fleeting 
and  dim  vocal-motor-auditory  imagery,  in  terms  of  my  own  voice:  'Will  he 
catch  itf  in  rising  inflection.  This  imagery  on  the  whole  was  so  real  that  I 
found  myself  inhibiting  actual  movements.  All  of  the  imagery  was  accom- 
panied by  incipient  movements  or  tensions." 

[Instructions:     Recall  imagery  of  playing  the  piano.] 

37.  Observer  B.  "First,  I  was  aware  of  tactual  imagery  of  piano  keys  be- 
neath my  fingers  but  this  was  accompanied  by  motor  imagery  of  placing  my 
fingers  against  the  keys  and  the  latter  very  soon  dominated  consciousness; 
there  followed  very  real  and  intense  motor  imagery  of  finger  movement  as  if 
I  were  searching  for  certain  keys;  particularly  clear  were  the  imaged  move- 
ments at  the  finger  and  wrist  joints.  The  quality  was  that  of  changing  position 
rather  than  that  of  tension  or  strain.  Then  I  had  tactual-motor  imagery  of 
playing  the  first  one  or  two  measures  of  the  'Waltz  Caprice',  together  with 
auditory  imagery  of  the  first  few  bars  but  this  latter  was  indistinct,  compared 
with  the  motor  processes.  In  rapid  succession  I  imaged  the  positions  and 
movements  of  my  fingers,  also  the  movements  of  elbow  and  shoulder  as  I 
shifted  from  one  part  of  the  Keyboard  to  another  and  as  I  approached  the  keys 
with  greater  or  less  muscular  energy.  I  was  then  conscious  of  sensory  tension 
concerned  with  the  j)rocess  of  anticipating  hitting  the  wrong  key  as  I  imaged 
a  sudden  and  extended  movement  of  my  left  hand  far  down  the  key-board; 
this  latter  imagery  involved  not  only  wrist  and  arm  but  movement  of  shoulder 
and  back  as  I  shifted  my  imaginary  sitting  position  in  order  to  reach  far 
enough  down  the  key-board.  Together  with  these  latter  processes  I  was  con- 
scious of  incipient  tongue  and  lip  movements  which  I  always  have  while  playing 
a  difiicult  selection.  The  imagery  was  characterized  by  its  persistence,  wealth 
of  quality  and  by  its  continuity." 

[Instructions:     Recall  the  movements  of  tying  a  fisherman's  knot.] 

37a.  Observer  A.  "  (This  is  a  motor  complex  which  I  have  not  performed  for 
at  least  five  years.)  The  first  processes  of  which  I  was  conscious  consisted  of 
two  black  visual  synaesthetic  images  of  movement  in  the  form  of  two  half 
circles.  Up  to  this  time  I  noticed  that  I  was  in  a  general  state  of  bodily 
relaxation  so  far  as  incipient  tendencies  toward  movement  or  tension  were 
concerned;  that  is,  I  noted  no  tendencies  to  make  the  incipient  movements  of 
tying  the  knot  or  of  figuring  out  how  such  a  knot  should  be  tied.  Up  to  this 
time,  also,  I  was  unable  to  differentiate  any  real  kinaesthetic  qualities  associ- 
ated with  the  black  visual  images.  I  then  set  up  for  myself  the  task  of  making 
slight  movements  more  or  less  at  random,  at  first,  of  tying  such  a  knot.  I  was 
then  able  to  recall  some  of  the  movements  in  terms  of  kinaesthetic  plus  the 
visual  accompaniments.  Here  the  kinaesthetic  qualities  of  motion  and  change 
of  finger  and  arm  position  appeared  in  fleeting  fashion.  (This  experiment 
confirms  my  observations  in  general  that  if  I  wish  to  recall  old  muscular  move- 
ments, kinaesthetic  imagery  docs  not  appear  until  I  am  able  to  make  the  proper 
incipient  and  actual  movements.  These  latter  seem  to  set  off  the  old  kinaes- 
thetic-visual  trains  of  imagery  which  could  not  at  first  be  recalled.     Otherwise, 

[51] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

without  these  incipient  movements,  I  can  onlj  recall  the  visual  imagery  ordi- 
narily associated  with  the  kinaestbetio  images  themselves.  Thus,  when  I  am 
relaxed  or  not  tending  to  assume  an  active  bodily  or  motor  attitude  toward  the 
task  in  question,  I  am  much  more  apt  to  recall  merely  the  visual  black  of  my 
kinaestbetic  imagery;  while  if  I  assume  an  active  attitude^  involving  incipient 
movement,  I  am  able  to  revive  the  kinaestbetic-visual  complex)" 

n".  Summary  of  introspective  data  on  kina^sthetic  imagery. 

Observer  A.  Characteristics  of  A's  kinaesthetic  imagery  may 
be  summarized  as  follows:  The  imagery  as  such  is  invariably 
vague,  fleeting,  difficult  of  description,  patchy,  disconnected  and 
very  difficult  to  recall;  memories  of  old  and  decayed  kinaesthetic 
complexes  appear  first  in  terms  of  detached  visual  associates ;  while 
it  appears  frequently  in  A's  consciousness  and  is  used  generally  in 
his  imaginal  processes  in  connection  with  objects  or  movements 
recently  figuring  in  his  everyday  life,  this  imagery  is  not  attended- 
to  focally;  kinaesthetic  qualities  do  not  usually  stand  alone  in 
consciousness  but  lead  at  once  to  stereotyped  forms  of  visual  asso- 
ciates; the  visual  associates  of  his  motor  imagery  are  always  very 
dark  or  black,  the  intensity  of  which  corresponds  to  the  intensity 
of  the  kinaesthetic  feature  of  the  image ;  these  visual  associates  ap- 
pear in  the  form  of  streaks,  bands,  or  ribbons,  when  representing 
movement,  and  these  streaks  or  bands  define  the  extent,  position 
and  direction  of  the  movement  itself;  the  presence  of  this  visual 
imagery  makes  it  impossible  for  A  to  obtain  unbroken  or  continuous 
successions  of  kinaesthetic  imagery  as  such,  for  the  visual  accom- 
paniments intrude  upon  the  continuity  of  this  vague  and  undiffer- 
entiated kinaesthetic  consciousness. 

The  result  of  voluntary  effort  to  attend  to  kinaesthetic  qualities 
as  such  is  either  a  tendency  to  become  absorbed  in  incipient  mus- 
cular movement  with  visual  accompaniments  immediately  rising 
into  the  foreground  of  consciousness,  or  a  tendency  to  shift  directly 
to  the  visual  associate  of  the  kinaesthetic  imagery  itself.  This 
dilemma  makes  it  almost  impossible  for  observer  A  to  examine 
kinaesthetic  qualities  as  such.  We  have  found  this  to  be  true  of 
his  auditory  and  tactual  imagery.  When  he  endeavors  to  concen- 
trate on  sensory  qualities  other  than  the  visual  it  always  seems  as 
if  these  qualities  were  "one  step  behind  attention"  while  the  visual 
process  always  seems  to  be  "with  attention."  Thus  qualities  other 
than  the  visual  are  always  marginal  or  non-focal;  they  never  be- 
come objects  of  "direct"  attention. 

[52] 


Th6  Synnesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

Kinaesthetic  imagery  reveals  the  same  tmdeucy  ultimately  t© 
give  way  entirely  to  visual  associates,  leaving  the  latter  detached, 
as  was  found  in  connection  with  tactual  and  auditory  imagery. 
For  example,  when  A  recalled  motor  imagery  of  throwing  a  ball 
during  the  first  few  seconds  of  the  recall  kinaesthetic  imagery  ap- 
peared together  with  its  visual  accompaniment  but  shortly  the 
kinaesthetic  imagery  dropped  out  and  the  remainder  of  the  imag- 
ery of  throwing  a  ball  was  finished  in  terms  of  the  visual  black 
synaesthetic  imagery,  alone. 

Noteworthy  is  the  fact  that  when  A  is  relaxed  or  when  he  does 
not  tend  to  make  incipient  movements,  visual  synaesthetic  images 
are  apt  to  appear  at  the  outset,  alone,  as  symbols  for  the  motor 
imagery.  On  the  other  hand,  if  A  assumes  an  active  motor  atti- 
tude toward  the  task  kinaesthetic  imagery,  plus  the  visual  associate, 
will  appear. 

There  is  to  be  noticed  a  slight  difference  between  kinaesthetic 
and  other  types  of  imagery  in  the  suddenness  with  which  they 
lead  to  their  synaesthetic  counterpart,  as  they  appear  in  conscious- 
ness. If  kinaesthetic  imagery  leads  to  incipient  movement  or  is 
accompanied  by  incipient  movement  in  any  given  kinaesthetic  com- 
plex, A  then  becomes  more  definitely  conscious  of  kinaesthetic 
qualities  as  such  and  is  able  to  describe  them  more  or  less  vaguely 
and  indefinitely.  For  this  reason,  motor  imagery  jjossesses  the 
qualities  of  movement,  and  at  times,  of  strain.  But  in  such  in- 
stances in  which  kinaesthetic  imagery  is  thus  rendered  more  focal 
or  identifiable  by  incipient  movement,  the  incipient  movement 
itself  ushers  into  consciousness  visual  synaesthetic  imagery  which 
latter  assists  in  defining  the  motor  qualities.  Continuity  of  kin- 
aesthetic qualities  as  such  is  confined  to  this  shift  from  kinaesthetic 
imagery  to  kinaesthetic  sensation  but  since  the  two  tend  to  appear 
together  and  since  the  kinaesthetic  sensation  at  once  leads  to  a 
visual  image,  this  continuity  is  never  much  more  prolonged  than 
it  would  be  in  the  absence  of  the  incipient  movement. 

Observer  B.  Kinaesthetic  imagery  is  by  far  the  type  which 
appears  most  often  and  whose  qualities  are  most  vivid  and  per- 
sistent. It  forms  the  background  of  B's  visual,  auditory  and  tac- 
tual imagery.  Incipient  movement  functions  as  the  background 
or  setting  for  kinaesthetic  imagery.  So  real  are  his  motor  images 
that  he  often  finds  himself  inhibiting  actual  movement  when  the 
former  are  present  in  consciousness.    Long  trains  or  successions 

[53] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

of  motor  images  occur  without  interruption  or  without  intervention 
by  images  from  another  modality.  B's  consciousness  is  never  free 
from  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  some  sort;  and  this  imagery  is  the 
common  tool  or  vehicle  which  he  uses  in  mediating  or  controlling 
imagery  from  other  sense  modalities.  In  fact  the  very  existence 
of  visual  imagery  in  B  's  consciousness  seems  to  depend  upon  motor 
factors. 

Practically  all  qualities  of  kinaesthetic  imagery  are  equally  dis- 
tinct and  focal ;  change  of  position,  rate  or  speed  of  movement, 
strain,  jerky,  rapid  jolts,  tenseness — all  occupy  focal  attention  at 
one  instant  or  another  in  his  kinaesthetic-imaginal  consciousness. 
These  qualities,  however,  are  invariably  reported  to  be  more  vivid 
when  accompanied  by  incipient  movement  or  tension.  In  fact  it 
was  so  difficult  for  B  to  differentiate  motor  imagery  from  incipient 
movement,  at  times,  that  we  are  uncertain  where  one  ends  and 
where  the  other  begins.  This  fact  holds  generally,  we  believe,  for 
kinaesthetic  image  and  sensation. 
iii.  Kinaesthetic  imagery  of  A  and  B  compared. 

1.  Both  observers  agree  that  kinaesthetic  imagery  is  more  stable, 
more  definite  and  qualitatively  more  rich  in  detail  when  accom- 
panied by  or  fused  with  incipient  movement. 

2.  B's  kinaesthetic  imagery  far  exceeds  A's  in  all  matters  of 
attribute,  and  in  complexity  of  implicit  behavior. 

3.  B's  kinaesthetic  imagery  functions  as  a  general  setting  or 
background  for  all  of  his  other  types  of  imagery  but  in  doing  so 
the  kinaesthetic  processes  are  not  claimants  of  his  focal  attention 
until  imagery  of  other  modalities  gives  out,  A's  kinaesthetic  imag- 
ery does  not  function  as  a  general  background  or  conscious  setting. 
His  settings  are  always  dominantly  visual  and  visually  synaes- 
thetic,  and  the  visual  sjmaesthetic  imagery  is  always  the  claimant 
of  his  focal  attention  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  modalities. 

4.  In  voluntarily  controlling  their  imagery  each  observer  uses 
the  one  type  which  possesses  the  greatest  wealth  of  detail  or  which 
appears  in  elaborate  groupings  or  successions.  This  type  is  kin- 
aesthetic in  B's  case  and  visual  in  A's  case.  It  seems  that  it  is  the 
type  of  imagery  which  functions  as  a  setting  or  background  of 
consciousness  which  is  employed  in  an  effort  to  usher  into  con- 
sciousness or  to  prolong  imagery  of  other  types.  For  example  A 
habitually  uses  his  visual  synaesthetic  imagery  in  recalling  audi- 
tory, tactual  and  kinaesthetic  imagery;  a  detached  visual  associate 

[54] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

of  a  certain  tone  will  suggest  auditory  imagery  of  that  tone ;  visual 
imagery  of  letters  will  suggest  tactual  imagery  of  letters.  The  one 
exception  to  this  procedure  is  A's  use  of  incipient  muscular  move- 
ment in  voluntarily  controlling  his  kinaesthetic  imagery.  B  habitu- 
ally employs  kinaesthetic  imagery  in  an  effort  to  recall  or  to  con- 
trol visual  imagery;  he  prolongs  his  tactual  imagery  by  having 
recourse  to  kinaesthetic  processes;  or  he  uses  vocal-motor  imagery 
in  recalling  auditory  imagery.  It  is  quite  evident  that  the  form 
of  imagery  which,  in  each  reagent,  possesses  the  greatest  amount 
of  qualitative  detail  and  which  has  come  to  appear  and  persist  in 
consciousness  most  readily,  is  that  type  which  is  not  only  controlled 
or  mediated  with  least  difficulty  but  is  the  type  which  is  used  as 
clues  in  the  voluntary  control  of  other  types. 

5.  One  striking  difference  is  to  be  noted  between  the  function- 
ing of  A's  synaesthetic  processes  and  B's  kinaesthetic  background. 
The  former  remain  focal  as  well  as  marginal  as  long  as  they  are 
present  in  consciousness  while  the  latter  remain  only  marginal  as 
long  as  other  types  of  imagery  tend  to  claim  the  focus  of  attention. 

B.  Series  2*.     Early  and  Recent  Memories. 

a.  Early  memories. 

i.  Typical  introspective  data. 

[Instructions:  Recall  some  very  early  memory  and  describe  the  imagery 
involved.] 

38.  Observer  A.  "(I  recalled  an  incident  which  happened  when,  at  the  age 
of  4,  I  was  travelling  with  my  mother.)  I  was  first  aware  of  visual  imagery 
of  an  indefinite  extent  of  water,  covering  an  area  of  about  the  size  of  a  city 
block;  the  water  was  smooth  and  dark  green  in  color;  forming  a  frame  for  this 
visual  imagery,  on  one  side,  were  the  inside  furnishings  of  a  car  such  as  are 
visible  between  the  car  windows,  the  distinct  features  of  which  were  shades 
of  dark,  yellowish  brown.  This  imagery  was  at  once  followed  by  a  focusing 
of  visual  attention  upon  a  spot  on  the  s^urface  of  the  water  at  which  there 
bobbed  up  from  beneath  the  surtace  the  head  and  back  of  a  turtle,  with  iti 
back  turned  toward  us.  Then  the  turtle  was  seen  to  turn  about  as  it  swam 
along  the  surface  of  the  water  and  to  face  directly  toward  us  while  its  back 
disappeared  beneath  the  surface.  (This  was  all  that  occurred  in  my  memory 
consciousneKs  an<l  the  imagery  involved  was  wholly  visual.)" 

39.  Observer  A.  Sjime  instructions.  "(I  recalled  an  early  childhood  ex- 
perience with  a  ferocious  dog.)  First  there  appeared  visual  imagery  of  an 
open  barn  doorway;  the  space  in  this  doorway  was  for  the  most  j^rt  dark 
with  no  visible  objects  except  near  the  bottom  of  the  doorway  where  I  visual- 
ized a  mass  of  light,  straw-colored  stuff  covering  the  floor;  I  saw  no  floor 
around  this  colored  ma^s  but  only  the  darkness  which  filled  the  doorway.  No 
detail  stood  out  in  this  imagery  except  the  color.  I  then  found  myself  inter- 
preting this  mass  of  stuflf  as  a  pile  of  corn-stalks.  To  the  right  of  the  corn- 
stalks I  visualized  a  dog,  tied  by  a  heavy  chain,  and  sitting  quietly  u\H>n  bis 

'Experimenta  on  t«8te  and  Bmell  indicate  results  similar  to  those  obtained  in  series  1. 
Owing  to  the  length  of  this  monoRraph,  therefore,  these  results  have  been  omitted. 

I  55  1 


The  Synaestkesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

haunches,  facing  me.  This  imagery  was  rather  hazy  as  to  outline  and  the  only 
definite  features  were  its  sitting  position,  its  dark-tan  color  except  for  a  patch 
of  much  lighter  tan  on  his  chest.  Eyes,  legs,  hair,  etc.  did  not  stand  out  in 
the  imagery.  Surrounding  the  dog  was  a  background  of  dark  grey  space 
which  became  darker  a  short  distance  from  it  and  from  hence  blended  into 
the  corn-fctalks  on  the  left  and  into  nothing  above  and  to  the  right,  except  the 
darkness  which  filled  the  doorway.  About  the  framework  of  the  doorway  ex- 
tended a  grey  background,  filling  the  remainder  of  my  field  of  vision.  The 
visualized  objects  appeared  as  if  I  were  approaching  the  door  from  directly 
in  front.  By  my  side  there  appeared  a  reddish  brown  object  which  assumed 
the  vague  shape  of  a  child  companion  the  color  of  which  meant  that  my  com- 
panion was  a  sister.  All  of  this  was  followed  by  visual  imagery  of  approach- 
ing the  dog  and  of  annoying  it  with  one  of  the  corn-stalks.  This  was  largely 
an  interpretation  from  a  change  in  the  scene;  I  now  found  myself,  in  imaginal 
terms,  directly  in  front  of  the  dog  and  between  it  and  the  pile  of  stalks.  Then 
I  was  aware  of  intense  barking  of  the  dog,  not  in  terms  of  auditory  imagery 
but  purely  in  terms  of  vivid  yellowish-grey  cloud-like  forms  which  issued  from 
the  region  of  the  dog's  mouth.  I  also  \-isualized  the  dog  pulling  at  his  chain 
and  trying  to  reach  us.  At  this  juncture  the  imagery  became  so  vivid  that 
the  experience  seemed  almost  real — it  became  tridimensional  rather  than  re- 
maining pliotographic  as  does  much  of  my  visual  imagery.  Then,  for  a  moment 
the  entire  region  involved  in  my  visual  imagery  was  filled  with  brilliant  but 
hazy  streaks  or  ribbons  of  light,  colored  a  silvery  white  with  reddish  and 
'creamy'  spots.  This  latter  imagery  represented  my  sister's  screams  but  there 
was  no  auditory  imagery  present.  The  whole  memory  was  exceedingly  clear 
but  of  short  duration.  (Each  time  1  recall  this  experience  this  imagery  tends 
to  appear  in  the  order  described  above;  and  so  far  as  I  can  tell,  it  has  not 
changed  in  detail  or  quality  for  years.)" 

40.  Observer  A,  Same  instructions.  "(I  recalled  my  first  visit  to  the  Blind 
School,  at  which  time  I  was  escorted  about  the  grounds  and  through  the 
buildings  by  the  superintendent's  wife,  who  told  me  about  the  things  I  would 
learn  and  how  I  would  study  geography  and  other  lessons.)  At  the  outset  I 
had  visual  imagery  of  the  expansive  grounds;  this  consisted  first  of  a  winding 
cement  sidewalk,  of  a  broad  expanse  of  yellowish-brown,  dead  grass  with  trees 
scattered  here  and  there  on  both  sides  of  the  walk.  This  imagery  was  photo- 
graphic and  i)ossessed  almost  no  detail.  I  could  not  make  out  the  individual 
blades  of  grass ;  the  area  in  my  image,  covered  by  the  dead  grass,  was  a  smooth, 
washed  color;  the  trees  to  the  right  and  to  the  left  were  seen  as  if  I  were 
approaching  the  school  building  from  along  the  walk;  the  scene  shifted  as  I 
imagined  myself  advancing  toward  the  school  itself,  although  I  had  no  motor 
imagery  of  walking;  I  found  myself  attending  to  no  particular  tree;  only  the 
trunks  and  lower  branches  of  the  trees  were  visible;  above,  the  imagery  merged 
at  once  into  nothingness  or  at  best  a  vague  setting  of  neutral  grey.  The  trunks 
of  tlie  trees  had  no  definitely  outlined  shape  or  size  and  the  branched  portions 
which  were  visible  were  a  poorly  saturated  darkish  green.  Here  and  there  only 
did  much  detail  stand  out  for  mostly  mere  areas  of  color  represented  the  green 
portions  of  the  trees;  this  color,  however,  was  sufficiently  definite  and  charac- 
teristic to  tell  me  that  the  trees  were  fir.  Then  I  had  faint  and  lleeting  visual 
imagery  of  the  superintendent's  wife  standing  before  me;  the  image  assumed 
the  general  shape  of  a  human  form  the  distinct  feature  of  which  was  its  color 
and  brightness — a  certain  light  yellow.  (At  this  juncture  in  my  memory,  I 
recall  that  she  told  me  that  she  was  going  to  show  me  about  the  place;  but 
here  I  had  no  auditory  imagery.  This  is  an  interpretation.  I  remember,  also, 
my  feeling  reaction  at  the  time  which  now  consists  of  a  reinstatement  of  an 
organic  com}dex.)  I  was  next  aware  of  a  sinking  sensation  somewhere  in  the 
region  of  my  stomach  or  abdomen — I  think  diaphragm;  of  an  incipient  tight- 
ening about  the  back  and  shoulder  muscles  as  if  I  were  beginning  to  resist 
something;   there  was  nothing  in  my  visual  imagery  which  might  suggest  an 

[56  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

unpleasant  reaction  but  at  the  time  of  the  incident  I  judged  the  superintend- 
ent's wife  as  regal  and  cold;  I  now  recall  this  feature  of  the  experience  in 
terms  of  verbal  interpretation  and  of  the  organic  reaction  which  I  have  just 
described.  Next  I  had  visual  imagery  of  being  on  the  back  porch  where  I 
visualized  a  hammock  which  one  of  the  pupils  at  the  school  had  just  finished 
making.  Then  the  scene  changed  to  that  of  a  school  room;  I  saw,  in  my 
visual  imager}',  one  oud  of  the  room;  my  attention  was  first  centered  upon  a 
globe  which  was  about  three  and  one-half  feet  in  diameter;  the  visible  surface 
of  the  globe  was  washed  with  a  dull  waxy-like  green  light,  regions  of  which 
represented  water  and  the  darker  regions  of  which  represented  land  and  moun- 
tains. Behind  the  globe  I  visualized  a  plain  grey  wall  with  no  detail.  From 
here  my  attention  shifted  to  visual  imagery  of  dissected  maps  lying  on  a  desk; 
I  saw  the  sections  distinctly,  lying  there  in  their  different  shades  of  natural 
wood  color,  but  further  than  this  no  details  were  present.  I  recall  now,  indi- 
rectly, that  I  inspected  these  pieces  at  the  time  and  marveled  at  the  fine  work- 
manship involved  in  making  them.  This,  however,  comes  to  me  in  verbal 
fashion.  Throughout  the  whole  experience,  attention  shifted  from  one  visual 
image  to  another  without  pause  and  without  any  slumping  in  attention.  (By 
voluntary  effort  I  am  now  able  to  construct  tactual  and  motor  imagery  but 
during  the  spontaneous  recall  no  such  imagery  was  present.)" 

41.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  "(The  first  memory  which  entered  my 
mind  upon  hearing  the  instructions  was  that  of  going  to  a  public  school  before 
I  lost  my  sight.  I  snatched  a  stick  of  candy  from  a  playmate  while  on  the  way 
to  school,  and  ran  away  with  it.  In  recalling  the  incident  I  had  no  visual 
imagery  whatever.  Practically  all  of  my  imagery  consisted  of  verbal  processes 
having  to  do  with  relating  the  experience.)  I  was  first  aware  of  this  memory 
in  terms  of  an  incipient  verbal  image,  'school,'  followed  by  incipient  motor 
imagery  of  arm-movements  of  grasping  what  I  later  interpreted,  verbally,  to 
be  a  piece  of  candy;  I  then  had  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  leg  movements  of 
running.  (I  suppose  that  j)ractically  all  of  this  imagery  arises  in  the  process 
of  recall,  not  from  memorj-,  but  from  the  process  of  relating  the  incident.  I 
feel  I  had  no  real  memory  imagery  of  the  experience  at  all.)" 

42.  Observer  B.  Same  instructions.  '<(The  most  vivid  of  my  early  memories 
is  the  recall  of  my  accident.)  At  the  outset  I  had  a  fleeting  visual  image, 
suggested  by  an  antecedent  verbal  process,  'accident,'  of  the  house  across  the 
street  from  the  place  where  the  accident  occurred ;  for  the  briefest  flash  of 
a  secon<l  this  image  was  vivid  and  real  but  it  disappeared  almost  as  soon  as  it 
came.  This  imagery  included  a  small  section  of  a  muddy  street,  part  of  an 
old  wooden  fence  in  front  of  the  house,  the  dull  wintery  sky  overhead  and  a 
snow-covered  hill  in  the  background.  This  imagery  lasted  for  so  short  a  time 
that  I  perceived  these  objects  as  wholes  and  was  aware  of  no  particular  details. 
Next  I  had  motor  imagery  of  groping  about,  immediately  following  an  (im- 
])lied)  exjilosioTi;  then  followed  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  stumbling  and  tactual- 
kinaesthetic  imagery  of  Ix'ing  held  in  the  arms  of  a  comj)anion  who  ran  to  me. 
A  host  of  imagery  then  followed,  including  auditory  imagery  of  my  father's 
exclamation  when  he  first  saw  nie,  of  my  mother's  voice  and  of  a  frienil's  who 
was  ]>resent  when  1  was  taken  home;  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  sitting  in  a  chair 
in  the  kitchen  (kitchen  interpreted)  while  my  mother  washed  my  face  and 
hands.  Accompanying  this  was  faint,  fleeting  visual  imagery — merely  a 
shadow — of  my  friend.  .Vcconipanying  this  imagerj-  were  affective-organic 
processes  which  invariably  recur  as  I  think  of  the  accident.  These  involve 
tendencies  toward  changes  in  resjtiration.  tensions  in  the  muscles  of  my  chest, 
throat  and  face." 

4.'}.  Ohstmr  B.  Same  instructions.  "(I  have  recalled  my  first  visit  to  the 
blind  school.)      In  the  beginning  I  had  auditorj'  imagery  of  my  mother  saying: 

[57] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

'We  are  here.'  This  was  followed  by  distinct  and  intense  auditory  imagery 
of  the  teacher's  voice  telling  me  that  I  would  learn  to  make  different  things; 
then  came  fleeting  and  faint  tactual  imagery  of  bead  baskets  and  other  kinds 
of  baskets,  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  moving  my  hands  over  these  and  other 
objects.  (From  this  point  on  I  am  not  certain  that  I  am  really  recalling 
events  which  actually  took  place  at  that  time.)  I  then  found  myself  con- 
structing tactual  and  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  objects  of  various  kinds — cane- 
seated  chairs,  hammocks,  games  and  the  like.  These  images  lack  the  back- 
ground consciousness  of  recognizing  or  of  labeling  my  experiences  as  old,  fa- 
miliar events." 

ii.  Summary  of  introspective  data  on  early  memories. 

Observer  A.  We  are  not  interested  in  discussing  early  memories 
as  such  for  the  reason  that  our  principal  purpose  is  to  comment 
upon  the  appearance  of  synaesthetic  processes  in  A's  consciousness 
of  early  childhood  events.  The  imagery  of  his  early  memories  is 
throughout  entirely  visual.  Only  as  his  visual  contents  suggest 
verbal  associations  or  verbal  acts  of  interpreting  these  contents,  is 
A  's  early  memory  consciousness  characterized  by  any  other  modal- 
ity than  the  visual.  The  most  prominent  features  of  this  visual 
imagery  consist  of  their  photographic  nature,  their  emphasis  upon 
color  and  degrees  of  brightness,  their  invariable  visual  setting  of 
neutral  grey,  their  dim,  indistinct  outlines  and  lack  of  minute 
detail.  The  most  interesting  feature  of  A's  early  memories  is,  for 
us,  the  fact  that  colors  and  shades  of  brightness  stand  alone  in 
consciousness  as  representatives  of  auditory,  tactual  or  other  non- 
visual  experiences  which  he  had  at  the  time.  This  fact  indicates 
that  A's  synaesthesia  developed  very  early  in  childhood;  so  early 
in  fact,  that  his  very  oldest  memories  are  sj'naesthetic. 

In  an  incident  during  which  A  and  his  sister  annoyed  a  dog, 
chained  in  a  bam,  A  heard  the  barking  of  the  dog  and  his  sister's 
screams  but  these  sounds  are  not  remembered  in  terms  of  auditory 
images.  At  the  time  of  the  incident  these  sounds  were  colored. 
The  colors  are  remembered  but  not  the  sounds.  Striking  is  the  fact 
that  the  behavior  of  these  dissociated  or  detached  colors  faithfully 
describes  the  intensity  of  the  dog's  barks  and  the  intensity  and 
fearfulness  of  his  sister's  screams.  The  affective  reaction  which 
A  experienced  at  the  time  and  which  has  been  forgotten,  as  such, 
is  now  recalled  in  terms  of  its  detached  visual  accompaniment. 
These  dissociated  synaesthetic  images  appear  in  a  visual  setting 
which  assists  in  ascribing  to  them  their  proper  meaning  in  the 
absence  of  the  imagery  for  which  they  stand.  They  are  also  inter- 
preted concretely  by  verbal  processes.     Vocal-motor  imagery  func- 

[58] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

tions  also  in  filling  out  other  deleted  contents.  For  example,  A 
recalled  that  he  picked  up  a  cornstalk  and  threw  it  at  the  dog  but 
has  no  direct  memory  imagery  of  doing  so.  This  item  appears  as 
a  verbal  process  in  relating  the  incident. 

Observer  B.  B's  early  memories  are  visual,  auditory,  tactual 
and  kinaesthetic  in  their  contents.  His  very  earliest  memories 
are  exceedingly  attenuated  and  fleeting  and  are  so  lacking  in  direct 
content  that  practically  the  entire  process  of  recall  consists  of  the 
verbal  processes  having  to  do  with  the  relating  of  the  incident. 
None  of  these  imaginal  contents  of  early  memories  possess  the  rich- 
ness of  detail,  nor  the  durability  of  ordinary  processes  of  imaging 
objects  or  events,  with  the  one  exception  of  the  visual  which  pos- 
sesses greater  definiteness  and  quantity  of  detail  in  early  memories 
than  in  any  other  functional  group  of  B's  mental  contents.  But 
such  visual  images  as  do  occur  in  early  memories  appear  and  dis- 
appear with  a  flash  and  only  in  rare  instances  can  they  be  revived 
or  prolonged.  The  fact  that  more  visual  imagery  is  present  in  his 
early  memories  than  is  present  in  his  thinking  processes  in  general 
may  be  explained  on  the  ground  that  at  the  time  of  these  early 
events  B  could  either  see  or  he  had  vivid  visual  imagery.  It  is  of 
importance  to  note  that  detailed  or  clear  visual  imagery  appears 
only  in  certain  contexts  and  that  these  contexts  are  those  which 
developed  at  a  time  when  B  employed  visual  processes.  This  sug- 
gests that  the  ability  to  arouse  or  to  employ  imagery  of  certain 
types,  generally,  depends  upon  the  development  of  certain  definite 
contexts  in  which  the  desired  image  and  the  cue  which  is  used  in 
ushering  this  image  into  consciousness  must  be  such  as  frequently 
appear  together  in  consciousness.  Thus  B's  visual  images,  in  early 
memories,  are  more  or  less  detached  phenomena;  they  are  images 
which  have  no  specific  value  in  his  conscious  life,  relatively  speak- 
ing; they,  as  well  as  the  cues  which  arouse  them,  appear  relatively 
infrequently ;  the  one  will  not  appear  without  the  other.  It  would 
be  interesting  to  speculate  whether  the  fact  that  B  can  have  fairly 
distinct  visual  imagery  in  early  memories  and  not  in  ordinary 
thinking  is  really  due  to  a  decay  of  his  visual  modality  or  whether 
it  is  simply  due  to  the  fact  that  because  of  the  continued  absence 
of  visual  sensory  processes  he  has  formed  habits  of  developing  only 
such  contents — complex  groupings  or  successions — as  are  constantly 
functioning  in  sensory  experience  proper.  We  are  inclined  to  be- 
lieve that  if  his  visual  modality  were  decaying  we  would  find  evi- 

[59] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

dence  of  it  in  every  visual  image,  and  that  the  presence  of  clear  and 
detailed  visual  imagery  in  one  context  means  that  visual  contents, 
as  such,  have  not  decayed.  It  points  to  the  fact  that  the  functions 
of  developing  contexts  in  which  visual  imagery  appears  have  de- 
cayed rather  than  contents  per  se. 

While  this  observation  is  not  a  new  one  in  the  psychological 
literature,  its  importance  has  not,  evidently,  been  appreciated.  It 
throws  light  upon  the  much  discussed  problem  of  act  and  content. 
It  indicates  that  contents  and  acts  are  mutually  exclusive  data  but 
that  they  are  dependent  variables.  The  one  cannot  exist  without 
the  other.  The  content  is  the  mode  by  which  the  act  takes  place. 
Any  act  or  event  must  take  place  in  a  certain  mode  and  by  this 
mode  we  mean  the  method  or  procedure  by  which  the  action  takes 
place.  The  content  is  the  form  of  the  act.  The  former  is  inevit- 
ably structure,  i.  e.,  it  is  static  while  the  latter  is  inevitably  fuuc- 
tion — it  is  dynamic.  In  crude  language  the  content  is  the  thing 
which  is  acting.  But  the  content  is  in  a  last  analysis  a  practical 
and  arbitrary  abstraction  whose  limits  must,  in  actuality,  be  as 
flexible  as  the  act  of  which  it  is  the  form.  In  other  words  mental 
contents  are  the  forms  in  which  mental  activities  exist.  If  a  con- 
tent has  decayed  it  implies  that  a  function  has  likewise  decayed 
and  vice  versa.  It  would  be  misleading  to  say  that  B's  visual 
modality  has  decayed,  for  it  presumes  that  his  mental  functions 
have  throughout  remained  intact.  With  decaying  mental  contents 
— if  they  have  decayed — there  has  occurred  a  decay  in  such  pro- 
cesses of  abstracting  data  from  habitually  used  experiences  as  will 
supply  contents  for  further  experiences.  A  deleting  in  B's  pro- 
cesses of  abstraction  has  occurred  together  with  deletion  in  visual 
imagery.  If  decay  in  visual  imagery  has  occurred  this  decay  has 
taken  along  with  it  corresponding  processes  of  attending,  associat- 
ing, controlling,  deriving  of  meanings,  recognition  and  the  like,  all 
of  which  have  been  supplanted  by  similar  functions  dealing  with 
images  in  other  modalities.  As  a  result  of  this  dual  decay — if  it 
can  be  called  decay — we  should  expect  that  deletion  in  processes 
of  associating,  controlling,  deriving  meanings,  recognition  and  the 
like  would  force  B  to  develop  new  contexts  in  which  visual  imagery 
would  not  and  could  not  appear  and  that  wherever  visual  imagery 
does  appear  it  of  necessity  exists  only  in  such  contexts  in  which  it 

[60] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

can  be  associated,  controlled,  and  recognized.  B's  early  memories 
are  isolated  contexts  as  well  as  contents ;  they  are  isolated  functional 
as  well  as  structural  groups.  This,  we  believe,  explains  why  de- 
tailed visual  imagery  appears  in  one  conscious  setting  and  not  in 
another.  With  the  loss  of  visual  imagery  go  the  cues  which  will 
arouse  this  imagery;  such  visual  imagery  as  does  persist  is  only 
that  imagery  whose  cues  have  not  likewise  disappeared.  Contents 
which  are  present  in  the  context  of  early  memories  provide  these 
cues  and  no  other  cues  will  suffice  to  arouse  this  visual  imagery. 

We  find  evidence  of  all  this  in  B's  early  memories  themselves. 
Not  only  is  visual  imagery  fleeting  and  uncertain  but  also  is  thie 
entire  early  memory  consciousness.  Where  contextual  imagery 
from  other  modalities  is  definite  so  is  the  visual ;  where  contextual 
imagery  is  lacking,  so  also  is  the  visual;  where  the  visual  image 
itself  is  definite  there  is  a  cue  which  suggests  it ;  where  the  visual 
image  is  lacking  there  is  also  lacking  the  cue  which  will  suggest  it ; 
other  cues  fail  to  produce  the  image,  to  prolong  or  to  revive  it.  In 
the  absence  of  old  processes  of  associating,  attending,  controlling, 
and  the  like,  all  of  which  have  gone  with  the  visual  imagery  itself, 
B's  mental  procedure,  during  the  act  of  recall  is,  of  necessity,  con- 
cerned with  new  and  other  things,  namely,  verbal  processes  of  in- 
terpreting, processes  of  supplementing,  constructing  new  contexts, 
and  the  like.  Hence  we  find  him  relating  in  terms  of  vocal-motor 
imagery  the  incident  of  having  snatched  a  piece  of  candy  from  a 
boy  companion  when  he  was  on  the  way  to  school  at  a  very  early 
age;  we  find  him  tending  to  fill  out  the  memory  of  his  first  visit 
to  the  blind  school  in  terms  of  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  imagery 
which  he  is  certain  is  not  direct  memory  imagery.  Old  contexts 
disappear  and  with  them  the  old  contents  and  in  their  places  appear 
both  new  contents  and  new  contexts.  Whether  the  old  have  de- 
cayed or  have  merely  become  detached  from  the  proper  cues  for 
their  arousal  is  but  a  matter  of  speculation. 
Hi.  Early  memories  of  A  and  B  compared. 

1.  While  B's  earh'  memories  contain  relatively  more  visual  con- 
tents than  do  groups  of  images  which  appear  in  other  contexts,  A's 
early  memories  show  no  such  marked  difference.  It  seems  probable 
that  the  hitter's  visual  imagery  has  been  kept  ** alive"  both  by  his 
entoptic  phenomenon  and  by  his  constant  use  of  visual  imagerj'  in 
synaesthetic  phenomena  and  in  synaesthesia  proper. 

[61] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

2.  B's  early  memories  have  undergone  processes  of  deletion  or 
degeneration  of  a  type  which  is  not  to  be  found  in  A.  Owing  to 
the  dropping  out  of  visual  contexts  in  B's  everyday  experience  we 
believe  that  not  only  visual  contents  but  entire  functional  con- 
stellations have  disappeared  from  B's  mental  life  and  that  these 
constellations  involved  the  cues  necessary  for  the  arousal  of  visual 
contents.  But  in  A's  case,  owing  to  synaesthetic  functions  and  to 
an  entoptic  phenomenon  from  both  of  which  he  has  been  able  to 
abstract  contents  for  future  use,  cues  and  contents,  alike,  have  been 
retained.  Undoubtedly  A's  early  memories  have  undergone  pro- 
cesses of  attenuation  and  perhaps  of  elaboration  as  have  B's  but 
the  former's  visual  contexts  have  remained  intact  throughout  his 
mental  life.  He  has  not,  like  B,  suffered  dissociation  of  visual 
functions  to  the  extent  that  visual  imagery  appears  only  in  a  small 
group  of  contexts  having  to  do  with  early  memories. 
iv.  Significance  of  synaesthetic  phenomena  in  A's  early  memories. 

A's  early  memories  throw  added  light  upon  the  evident  value 
of  his  synaesthetic  imagery.  That  sounds,  affective  states,  and  in 
fact  all  forms  of  non-visual  experiences  should  be  retained  in  terms 
of  their  detached  visual  associates  is  consistent  with  our  view  that 
in  his  case  non-visual  experiences  cannot  be  attended  to  as  such. 
This  means  that  they  cannot  be  experienced  as  such  and  therefore 
that  they  cannot  be  revived  or  recalled  as  such.  Since,  therefore, 
all  non-visual  images  are  vague  and  undifferentiated  experiences 
until  they  become  visual,  they  are  unstable  and  subject  to  early 
decay  or  dissociation  from  their  visual  accompaniments.  An  ex- 
perience that  is  to  be  recalled  must  be  one  which  can  be  voluntarily 
controlled  or  one  which  is  subject  to  arousal  by  the  method  of  cues. 
Unstable  and  easily  dissociated  processes  are  less  subject  to  control 
by  means  of  cues.  On  the  other  hand  the  visual  associates  are 
stable ;  they  are  stereotyped  and  being  concrete,  definite  experiences 
as  well,  they  are  the  processes  which  become  more  strongly  inte- 
grated into  various  patterns  of  response.  They  are  the  processes, 
then,  which  are  more  subject  to  voluntary  control.  As  a  result  of 
these  conditions  we  should  expect,  then,  that  the  visual  rather  than 
the  non-visual  half  of  a  synaesthetic  experience  would  be  the  one 
which  is  retained.  In  other  words  that  half  of  the  synaesthetic 
experience  is  retained  to  which  definite  attributes,  qualities  and 
meaning  are  originally  ascribed,  and  since  it  is  to  the  visual  half 
of  the  synaesthetic  experience  to  which  definite  qualities  and  mean- 

[62] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

ing  are  ascribed,  it  is  the  visual  image  rather  than  its  vague  and 
meaningless  parent  process  which  survives  in  the  memory  context. 
The  visual  image,  in  any  given  synaesthetic  experience,  is 
stronger  than  its  parallel  sensory  process.  We  have  already  seen 
that  in  synaesthetic  phenomena  the  associated  image  is  stronger 
than  the  parent  image.  It  is  the  associated  visual  image  which 
claims  attention  rather  than  the  non-visual  half  of  the  process.  As 
we  shall  see  later,  the  same  condition  obtains  in  synaesthesia  proper, 
i.  €.,  when  the  primary  process  to  which  the  image  is  attached  is  a 
sensation  rather  than  an  image.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the 
stronger  of  the  two  factors  in  synaesthesia  should  survive  and  that 
the  primary  but  weaker  factor  should  decay  or  disappear  in  the 
process  of  forgetting. 

&.  Recent  memories. 

i.  Typical  introspective  data. 

[Instructions:  Recall  a  recent  incident  and  describe  in  detail  all  of  the 
imagery  involved.] 

44.  Observer  A.  "(I  recalled  a  fishing  incident  which  occurred  about  a 
week  ago.)  I  first  had  visual  imagery  of  myself  standing  in  the  rear  end  of  » 
boat  about  half  of  which  was  visualized  as  being  the  drab  color  of  water- 
soaked  wood.  I  was  holding  a  fishing  rod  in  my  hand.  Out  in  front  of  me  waa 
■tretchetl  a  smooth,  level  expanse  of  greenish-olive  colored  water  and  at  the  far 
end  of  this  expanse,  about  fifty  yards  away,  I  visualized  a  bright,  white  cloud- 
like 'bank';  over  this  'bank'  I  was  rapidly  moving  my  line  of  regard  and 
could  detect  slight  kinaesthesis  of  eye-movement  as  I  did  so.  This  white 
'bank'  represented  rapids  farther  down  the  creek.  The  shores  of  the  creek 
were  visualized  a  grey  and  were  indistinct  save  for  the  fact  that  they  were 
definitely  projected  about  50  feet  from  me  on  either  side.  Above  me  I  was 
dimly  conscious  of  something  black;  I  had  kinacsthetic  imagery  of  crouching 
beneath  it.  This  black  mass  meant  to  me  overhanging  willows  and  alders  into 
which  J  hud  been  fouling  my  fishing  tackle.  The  willows  and  alders  were 
visualized  in  the  same  black  as  accompanies  kinaesthetic  sensations  and  I  am 
certain  that  this  was  due  to  the  fact  that  this  visual  imagery  wjis  affected  by 
the  accompanying  kinaesthesis  of  avoiding  the  branches  and  by  the  tensions 
having  to  do  with  imaged  crouching  movements  and  fear  that  my  fishing  tackle 
would  become  fouled.  Together  with  this  kinaesthesis  there  appeared  distinct 
organic  images,  colored,  of  unpleasantness.  These  were  localized  from  my 
shoulders  down  to  the  region  of  my  belt.  Then  I  recalled  two  distinct  pulls 
at  my  pole.  Thereupon  I  recalled  kinaesthetic  imagerv-  of  tightening  my 
muscles  in  my  arms  and  chest  while  at  the  same  time  I  visualized  my  handia 
upon  the  pole  and  myself  working  the  reel.  There  accompanied  these  latter 
experiences  a  projected  tactual-like  image  out  in  the  water  at  the  end  of 
the  line.  This  projected  tactual  image  consisted  of  two  dark  blots  out  upon 
the  greenish-olive  water.  (This  imagery  puzzled  me  for  a  moment.  I  am  un- 
able to  identify  it  either  as  tactual  in  origin  or  as  kinaesthetic.  If  it  is  tac- 
tual-pressure in  origin  why  should  it  not  be  localized  in  my  hands  where  there 
was  nothing  but  purely  visual  imagery  of  white  handsT  If  it  waa  kinaesthetic 
why  wasn't  it  localized  in  my  armst  But  watch  the  development  of  this  pro- 
jected image.)  I  next  recalled  a  sound  of  a  splash  coming  from  the  region 
at  which  these  two  dark  blots  had  been  visualized.     This  splash  appeared  as 

[63] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

a  white  spire-like  form  of  brightness  about  a  foot  high  and  extending  upward 
from  the  green  surface  of  the  water.  I  identified  this  as  a  pure  synaesthetic 
image  for  the  reason  that  if  it  had  been  a  visualized  splashing  of  water  instead 
of  a  symbol  for  the  sound  of  the  splash,  there  would  have  appeared  eoncentrie 
wavelets  irradiating  out  from  it.  Immediately  in  front  of  this  visualized 
auditory  splash  I  visualized  the  head  and  gills  of  a  fish,  with  its  mouth  open — 
just  as  a  fish  appears  when  fighting  a  hook.  Before  this  visual  image  of  thQ 
fish  became  definite  in  outline  and  clear  as  to  details  it  was  obliterated  by  a 
black  streak,  irregularly  formed  like  the  tongue  of  a  lightning  flash;  this 
black  streak  shot  out  and  away  from  the  place  at  which  the  fish-head  had  just 
been  visualized  and  behaved  on  the  surface  of  the  water  very  much  as  a 
shadow  would  behave  upon  a  screen  which  moved  about.  This  movement  of 
the  black  streak  I  at  once  interpreted  as  the  movement  and  progress  of  the 
fish  from  place  to  place  beneath  the  water.  I  then  recalled  attempting  to 
check  it  with  arm-movement;  this  latter  consisted  of  kinaesthetic  imagery 
of  arm-movement  together  with  incipient  tensions.  Here,  again,  the  movements 
of  the  fish  seemed  to  be  colored  by  my  kinaesthesis  of  trying  to  cheek  these 
movements.  The  entire  experience  through  here  was  renclered  more  vivid  in 
color  due  to  the  unpleasantness  from  the  overhanging  branches  and  also  to 
anxiety  concerning  my  old  last  year's  fish  line  which  was  not  in  the  best  of 
condition.  The  unpleasantness  appeared  in  the  form  of  fleeting  organic  sen- 
sations which  in  themselves  were  more  or  less  indescribable  other  than  as  to 
their  bodily  localization  in  jaws,  shoulders  and  chest;  but  they  were  followed 
at  once  in  consciousness  by  vivid  dark  browns  and  blacks.  The  kinaesthetic 
element  in  this  affective  toning  is  very  strong  and  shows  up  clearly  in  the 
blackness  of  the  \d3ual  associates.  Both  organic  and  kinaesthetic  processes 
disappeared  before  the  visual,  leaving  the  latter  as  visualized  regions  about 
my  arms,  shoulders  and  chest.  I  then  recalled  synaesthetic  imagery  of  my 
own  voice — a  poorly  saturated  bluish-brown,  but  I  was  unable  to  recall  what 
I  said.  By  this  time  the  olive-green  water  had  become  very  much  'streaked' 
with  these  lightning  shaped  ribbons  of  black,  requiring  considerable  eye-move- 
ment to  follow  them  out  to  their  terminations.  Then,  very,  very  suddenly  all 
of  these  streakings  vanished  and  again  appeared  the  smooth  expanse  of  olive- 
drab  water.  I  visualized  myself  lifting  the  pole  until  it  nearly  touched  the 
black,  visualized  overhanging  trees  and  out  from  the  water  where  I  had  been 
seeing  the  black  streaks  appeared  about  18  inches  of  a  bluish  fish-Hue  with  the 
end  dangling  above  the  water  about  six  inches.  At  the  very  tip  of  the  line 
appeared  a  small,  brilliant  white  light  which  was  interpreted  as  the  broken  end. 
(I  forgot  to  mention  that  the  fish's  head  was  visualized  as  a  bluish-white.  I 
am  now  convinced  that  the  two  black,  projected  blots  at  the  end  of  the  fish-line 
were  projected  visualizations  of  the  two  sharp  tugs  on  the  line  as  the  fish  was 
biting.  They  were  colored  black  owing  to  the  influence  of  my  black  kinaes- 
thetic synaesthesis.)" 

45.  Observer  A.  Same  instructions.  "(I  recalled  a  recent  ball  game  which 
I  attended.)  There  first  appeared  visual  imagery  of  the  ball  ground  stretched 
out  before  me;  I  recognized  features  about  the  field,  however,  which  indicated 
that  it  Avas  not  the  ball  ground  to  which  I  recently  went  which  I  saw  in  my 
imagery  but  a  field  which  I  used  to  play  on  when  a  boy.  No  detail  stood  out 
in  this  diamond-shaped  field  until  my  visual  attention  was  claimed  by  the 
region  about  the  home  plate;  then  there  appeared  the  background  of  fir  trees 
and  the  broken-down  fence  beyond  the  out-field.  The  trees  were  not  distinct 
as  to  outline  but  merely  green,  conical  shaped  forms;  the  fence  consisted  of 
rather  blurred  rod-like  bands  of  grey — the  color  of  weatherbeaten  boards.  I 
could  not  see  the  players  other  than  as  vague  moving  forms  of  dark  grey;  I 
then  saw  myself  sitting  upon  the  bleachers.  (When  I  attended  this  particular 
game  I  did  not  visualize  the  field  before  me  but  the  field  which  I  have  just 
described.)  I  could  not  get  any  auditory  imagery  of  the  sounds  from  the 
players  or  from  the  grand-stand,  nor  did  I  have  any  memory  imagery  of  climb- 

[64  1 


The  Synaesihesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

mg  onto  the  bleachers,  but  I  had  fairly  definite  images  of  face-likg  shapes 
thickly  distributed  about  me  and  among  some  of  these  faces  I  recalled  famiUar 
colors  representing  certain  individual  persons  whom  I  knew.  I  was  able  to 
see  the  general  shape  of  certain  faces  but  these  forms  had  no  other  detail 
other  than  their  peculiar  coloring.  Unfamiliar  faces  were  mere  round  forma 
of  grey.  The  faces  which  stood  out  the  clearest  were  those  of  students  who 
rooted  the  hardest  and  whose  voices  I  recognized  during  the  game;  the  faces 
are  colored  according  to  the  colors  of  these  voices.  All  of  this  was  followed 
by  develoj)ing  tendencies  to  visualize  my  legs  in  a  very  light-grey  color;  as  I 
fiied  my  attention  upon  this  imagery  for  a  moment  there  developed  faint 
tactual  imagery  of  the  cold  wind,  blowing  against  my  legs,  whereupon  this 
light-grey  imagery  became  much  brighter.  Then  I  visualized  wide  black  streaks 
across  the  middle  of  my  back  and  in  the  lombar  region;  this  constituted  my 
remembrance  of  back  strains  as  I  sat  for  a  long  time  upon  the  bleachers  with 
no  support  behind  me;  this  latter  imagery  in  turn  was  followed  by  kinaesthetio 
imagery  of  these  back  strains  and  again  the  color  was  made  more  intense.  As 
I  lingered  upon  the  kinaesthetic  qualities,  however,  which  at  first  were  very 
indistinct,  they  tended  to  give  way  to  visual  qualities  entirely,  which  latter  per- 
sisted much  longer." 

46.  Observer  B.  Similar  instructions.  "(I  recalled  a  certain  portion  of  a 
walk  which  we  took  not  long  ago,  through  a  wooded  section  of  country  and 
over  a  winding  trail.)  First  there  appeared  auditory  imagery  of  the  footsteps 
of  the  man  who  was  walking  in  front  of  me;  then  sketchy  auditory  imagery 
of  his  voice  in  which  the  peculiar  pitch  and  timbre  of  his  voice  stood  out  rather 
than  any  particular  words  which  he  said.  This  was  followed  by  auditory 
imagery  of  the  footsteps  of  the  man  behind  me;  the  latter  were  characterized 
by  their  heavier  thud  as  his  feet  struck  the  ground.  Then  followed  in  very 
rapid  succession  a  mass  of  imagery;  kinaesthetic  images  of  walking  up  the 
steep  slope  of  a  hill ;  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  swinging  my  arms,  motor  imagery 
of  deep  breathing-in  of  the  fresh  air,  auditory  imagery  of  a  bird  singing, 
tactual  imagery  of  a  flower  which  I  carried  for  some  time  while  on  the  walk; 
olfactory  imagery  of  the  flower,  auditory  imagery  of  a  windmill  which  I  heard 
oflf  in  the  distance,  auditory  imagery  of  a  cow  stepping  aside  from  the  trail  as 
we  passed  her  by,  auditory  imagery  of  the  cow's  breathing,  vocal-motor  imag- 
ery  of  my  voice  saying,  *  Gee !  this  is  great  I '  and  along  with  this  latter  imagery 
I  was  aware  of  slight  tendencies  to  breathe  more  deeply  during  the  recall,  of 
tendencies  for  the  muscles  all  over  my  body  to  become  tense  with  exhilaration 
as  I  imaged  the  great  expanse  and  freedom  of  the  out-of-doors.  Included  in 
this  organic  and  motor  response  were  tendencies  to  crane  my  neck  as  if  I  were 
looking  or  listening  to  something  far  off  in  the  distance.  All  of  these  images 
were  so  vivid  and  real  that  I  tended  to  repeat  the  actual  movements  of  walking 
as  I  was  in  the  process  of  recalling  the  incident.  While  each  image  was  fleet- 
ing, it  was  very  clear  and  intense  while  it  persisted;  attention  shifted  suddenly 
from  one  process  to  another  with  almost  no  perceptible  lag,  during  the  entire 
procedure." 

47.  Observer  B.  Similar  instructions.  "(I  recalled  the  last  time  I  occupied 
the  pulpit  of  a  small  country  church.)  I  was  first  aware  of  auditory  imagery 
of  the  organ  playing  a  hymn,  together  with  auditory-vocal-motor  imagery  of 
joining  in  the  chorus  with  the  congregation.  This  was  followed  by  diffused 
tactual  imagery  of  the  warmth  irradiating  from  a  stove  which  stood  near  the 
pulpit,  tactual  imagery  localized  in  my  hand  and  forearm  of  resting  against 
the  top  of  the  pulpit  and  tactual  imagery  of  hitting  my  knees  against  th« 
sides  of  the  pulpit ;  then  there  was  vague  imagery  which  I  presume  was  tactual, 
of  the  carpet  beneath  my  feet;  I  recalled  the  people  in  terms  of  auditory 
imagery  of  the  rustling  of  their  clothes  and  in  terms  of  rustling  paper  and 
books;  I  also  had  a  confused  tactual-motor-visual  image  of  the  church  audi- 
torium, resembling  one's  consciousness  as  he  is  approaching  a  wall;  in  this 
complex  I  vaguely  distinguish  a  blank,  shadowy  form  before  me,  faint  coolness 

[65] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

and  a  low  jumble  of  hardly  distinguishable  echos  from  the  noises  in  the  air. 
I  then  had  distinct  memories  of  the  benches,  partly  visual,  in  the  form  of 
fleeting  shadows,  the  only  clear  feature  of  which  was  the  fact  that  these 
fihadows  appeared  as  curves  aligned  in  a  row;  together  with  this  latter  imagery 
I  had  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  arm-movement  of  feeling  along  the  arms  of  the 
benches  as  I  walked  by.  I  had  incipient  motor  tendencies  of  turning  to  the 
right  which  constituted  an  awareness  that  the  organist  was  in  that  direction, 
but  before  this  process  developed  to  a  focal  degree  of  clearness  I  had  hosts 
of  kinaesthetic  and  tactual  images  concerned  with  feeling  of  the  pulpit  and 
with  pacing  back  and  forth  behind  it  as  I  preached  the  sermon.  During  the 
process  of  this  recall  I  had  numerous  incipient  tensions  about  the  face,  neck, 
shoulders,  arms  and  chest,  together  with  visceral  disturbances,  all  of  which 
constituted  the  affective  side  of  my  mission  in  the  church." 

ii.  Sumynary  of  inirospeciive  data  on  recent  memories. 

Observer  A.  The  contents  and  functions  alike  are  almost  en- 
tirely visual  in  A's  recent  memories  owing  to  the  fact  that  during 
the  original  experience  of  the  event  recalled  he  is  constantly  trans- 
lating non-visual  experiences  into  visual  images.  Throughout  his 
recent  memories  sounds,  tactual  experiences,  kinaesthetic  processes 
and  in  fact  all  non-visual  experiences  are  recalled  in  terms  of  their 
dissociated  visual  symbols  and  these  symbols  are  invariably  iden- 
tical with  the  visual  imagery  which  was  originally  associated  with 
the  non-visual  experiences.  Of  importance  is  the  fact  that  at  times 
these  dissociated  visual  symbols  suggest  their  parent  processes.  For 
example  in  recalling  the  experience  of  fishing  A  was  first  aware  of 
a  black  mass  over  his  head,  colored  black  owing  to  kinaestheses  of 
avoiding  this  mass  which  represented  willow  and  alder  branches 
above  him.  Then  there  appeared  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  crouch- 
ing to  avoid  the  over-hanging  limbs.  At  another  time  A  was  aware 
of  visualizing  the  calves  of  his  legs  in  terms  of  light  grey  whereupon 
the  parent  process  of  this  light  grey  appeared — a  tactual  image  of 
the  cool  wind  blowing  against  his  legs  (as  he  sat  upon  some  bleach- 
ers watching  a  baseball  game).  At  other  times,  however,  the  par- 
ent process  does  not  appear.  For  example,  in  terms  of  the  original 
visual  concomitant,  not  in  terms  of  auditory  qualities,  he  was 
aware  of  "auditory  imagery"  of  a  fish  splashing  in  the  water  as 
it  was  hooked.  Or  again,  he  had  visual  imagery  of  his  own 
voice  but  no  vestige  of  auditory  qualities.  In  the  process  of  for- 
getting, therefore,  it  is  evident  that  A's  auditory  processes  become 
dissociated  from  their  visual  accompaniments  much  earlier  than 
do  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  qualities.  And  since  kinaesthetic  qual- 
ities appear  in  his  recent  memory  content  more  frequently  than  do 
any  other  non-visual   processes   it   seems   safe   to   conclude   that 

[66] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

kinaesthetic  processes  are  less  affected  by  dissociation  than  are 
processes  from  any  other  non-visual  modality.  It  is  significant  in 
this  connection  to  note  that  kinaesthetic  processes  have  more  defi- 
nite features  or  attributes  of  their  own  than  do  any  other  non- 
visual  experiences.  A  occasionally  reports  a  fleeting  but  "pure" 
kinaesthetic  image  and  by  this  he  means  that  kinaesthetic  qualities 
as  such  momentarily  tend  to  become  focalized  in  consciousness — a 
state  of  affairs  which  obtains  for  no  other  non-visual  type  of  image. 
Nevertheless  A  cannot  attend  to  a  kinaesthetic  process  as  such  in 
the  absence  of  its  visual  associate  of  blackness.  There  is  no  doubt, 
however,  that  qualities  of  tension,  strain  and  movement  may,  mo- 
mentarily, if  but  non-focally,  be  ascribed  to  kinaesthetic  processes 
as  such. 

Thus  it  seems  that  while  in  his  early  memories  A  is  unable  to 
recall  any  original  non-sensory  experience  other  than  in  terms  of 
its  detached  visual  associate,  in  his  recent  memories  A  is  able  to 
recall  the  entire  synaesthetic  complex — the  visual  associate  together 
with  the  parent,  the  non-visual  process.  If,  however,  the  parent 
process  does  not  appear  along  with  its  visual  associate,  the  only 
procedure  by  which  A  is  able  to  recall  the  former  is  by  resorting 
to  the  method  of  fixing  his  attention  upon  the  latter.  It  invariably 
happens  that  when  the  visual  associate  is  lacking  so  is  the  parent 
process  and  the  parent  process  can  never  be  revived  in  the  absence 
of  the  visual  associate.  Wherever  a  synaesthetic  phenomenon  ap- 
pears in  a  memory  consciousness  it  enters  consciousness  as  one 
process ;  that  is,  provided  the  non-visual  half  of  the  phenomenon 
appears  first  it  is  never  detached  but  merges  very  suddenly  into 
the  visual  accompaniment. 

Detached  synaesthetic  images  function  quite  generally  in  A's 
processes  of  recall  as  the  cues  by  which  he  obtains  imagery  of  the 
primary  and  non-visual  half  of  the  original  experience.  If,  for 
example,  he  wislios  to  recall  the  name  of  a  certain  person,  the  color 
which  symbolizes  that  name  will  appear  first  and  the  name  itself 
will  be  derived  from  the  hue,  shape,  brightness  or  behavior  of  the 
visual  cue.  Thus  in  recalling  past  experiences  synaesthetic  phenom- 
ena are  reversible ;  the  presence  of  the  detached  visual  image  may 
lead  at  once  to  the  advent  into  consciousness  of  the  non-visual 
half  of  the  original  experience.  The  visual  associate  tends  to  ap- 
pear first  and  then  ushers  into  consciousness  the  primary  image 
for  which  it  stands.     In  synaesthetic  phenomena,  then,  the  associ- 

[67  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

ation  may  run  in  the  direction  of  the  secondary  to  the  primary 
process  in  the  case  of  recall  but  runs  in  the  direction  of  primary 
to  secondary  process  under  conditions  which  do  not  involve  recall. 
Observer  A  has  become  so  familiar  with  large  numbers  of  his 
stereotyped  visual  images  that  he  can  at  will  employ  them  as  mem- 
ory aids  and  does  so  constantly  in  conducting  his  classes  in  history, 
biology  and  in  general  science. 

Notwithstanding  this  fact  that  synaesthetic  phenomena  are  re- 
versible, certain  investigators  in  this  field  have  affirmed  the  irre- 
versibility of  synaesthesia  and  as  a  consequence  have  been  led  to 
adopt  a  physiological  theory.     (See  II,  page  38.) 

Observer  B.  B's  recent  memories  are  exceedingly  rich  in  tac- 
tual auditory  and  kinaesthetic  details,  the  kinaesthetic  imagery 
tending  to  dominate  and  to  be  more  definite  and  persistent  than 
the  other  forms.  Visual  imagery  is  exceedingly  rare  and  wherever 
present  it  is  fused  with  tactual  or  motor  processes;  it  is  confined 
to  shadowy  forms  or  vague  greyish  extents  of  space  and  functions 
almost  wholly  in  tactual-motor  schemata.  In  other  words,  visual 
imagery  is  limited,  in  function,  to  contexts  which  have  to  do  with 
awareness  of  space  or  extents  as  such.  This  suggests  that  one  of 
the  most  stable  of  all  of  the  visual  attributes  and  perhaps  the  most 
primitive,  is  the  attribute  of  extent.  And  since  B's  visual  imagery 
is  largely  confined  to  greys,  so  far  as  brightness  is  concerned, 
brightness  seems  to  follow  extent  as  a  next  most  stable  or  primitive 
attribute. 

In  his  recent  memory  consciousness  B's  attention  shifts  with 
great  rapidity  from  one  qualitative  detail  of  content  to  another, 
each  quality  as  such  standing  out  momentarily  in  consciousness. 

in.  Our  observers'  recent  memories  compared  with  their  earlier 
memories. 
A's  memories,  throughout,  are  dominantly  visual  in  their  con- 
tent. Old  auditory,  tactual  and  motor  processes  have  become  dis- 
sociated beyond  voluntary  control  and  only  the  visual  associates 
have  survived.  As  we  examined  his  recent  memories  we  found 
evidence  that  certain  of  the  original  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  ex- 
periences had  not  yet  ''decayed"  to  the  extent  that  they  could  not 
be  recalled,  although  many  of  them  had  already  become  dissoci- 
ated from  their  visual  concomitants  to  the  extent  that  only  by  hav- 

[68] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

ing  recourse  to  the  latter,  which  readily  appear  in  consciousness, 
could  the  former  be  reinstated.  But  auditory  experiences  which 
dated  back  but  a  few  days  could  not  be  recalled;  only  their  de- 
tached visual  associates  would  appear.  Auditory  imagery  seems 
to  be  the  first  to  suffer  dissociation  while  kinaesthetic  imagery  is 
the  last  of  the  non-visual  experiences  to  undergo  such  dissociation. 

A  change  has  occurred  in  B's  memories  as  we  pass  from  early 
to  recent  forms.  But  in  B  's  case  this  change  consists  of  a  dropping 
out  of  visual  imagery  and  of  a  gradual  increase  in  the  relative  im- 
portance of  kinaesthetic  imagery. 

As  a  consequence  of  these  changes  in  both  reagents — the  dimin- 
ishing amount  of  dissociation  of  synaesthetic  phenomena  in  A's 
case  and  the  increasing  importance  of  kinaesthesis  in  B's  case — we 
find  a  clue  to  the  procedure  by  which  images  are  aroused  during 
the  process  of  recall.  B's  kinaesthetic  images  function  as  stimuli 
for  the  arousal  of  tactual  and  auditory  images  while  A's  important 
cues  are  visual  and  are  used  in  arousing  tactual  and  kinaesthetic 
imagery  and  in  unsuccessful  attempts  to  arouse  auditory  imagery. 
B  's  visual  functions  seem  to  have  decayed ;  A 's  not  only  have  been 
retained  but  are  functionally  more  useful  as  cues  in  his  recent 
than  in  his  early  memories.  Thus  the  lack  of  visual  imagery  in 
B's  case  and  the  dominance  of  it  in  A's  case  have  produced  oppo- 
site results.  While  this  fact  is  in  itself  obvious,  its  importance  in 
aiding  one  to  understand  the  significance  of  A's  synaesthetic 
phenomena  cannot  be  over-estimated. 

iv.  Significance  of  synaesthetic  phenomena  in  A's  recent  memories. 
Results  from  A's  recent  memories  confirm  our  interpretations 
from  results  on  his  early  nieinorios.  (See  page  62.)  Not  only  are 
the  visual  a.ssociates  far  more  stable  and  subject  to  voluntary  con- 
trol but  they  themselves  are  used  as  the  means  by  which  voluntary 
recall  of  non-visual  experiences  is  exorcised.  These  results  also 
confirm  our  tentative  view  tliat  synaesthetic  processes  function  in 
the  development  of  meaning.  For  we  found  that  where  one  half 
of  the  synaesthetic  process  stood  for  the  other  half,  one  of  these 
paired  associates  inevitably  tended  to  lead  to  the  other  so  long  as 
the  members  of  the  pair  had  not  become  dissociated  in  the  process 
of  forgetting.     And  it  made  no  difference  which  of  these  two  as.so- 

[69  J 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

dates  appeared  first  in  consciousness.  In  other  words,  where  mean- 
ings are  reversible,  so  are  synaesthetic  phenomena. 

SjTiaesthetic  phenomena  function  in  recent  memories  as  they 
function  in  imagery  and  in  early  memories:  the  attributes  of  non- 
visual  processes  are  ascribed  to  stereotyped  concomitant  visual 
imagery;  and  as  a  result,  when  this  imagery  becomes  detached 
temporarily  from  its  non-visual  parent  process  it  symbolizes  or 
means  that  missing  experience  in  that  it  may  function  in  a  mean- 
ingful complex  of  mental  events  just  as  if  it  were  the  original  non- 
sensory  process  itself. 

Still  further  evidence  that  synaesthetic  processes  play  an  im- 
portant role  in  the  development  of  meaning  is  to  be  found  in  the 
influence  which  the  synaesthetic  function  may  have  upon  such 
visual  imagery  as  is  not  normally  synaesthetic  in  character.  In 
A's  recent  memory  described  in  introspection  44,  visual  imagery 
of  willow  and  alder  trees  was  colored  black  when  it  normally  would 
have  been  some  shade  of  green  and  brown.  The  instant  after  this 
visualized  blackness  of  the  trees  above  him  had  appeared  in  con- 
sciousness A  found  himself  becoming  conscious  of  kinaesthetic 
imagery  of  crouching  to  avoid  the  branches.  The  kinaesthetic  pro- 
cesses were  anticipated  in  terms  of  the  black  synaesthetic  image 
which  always  means  kinaesthetic  qualities  when  present  in  certain 
contexts.  But  when  the  black  synaesthetic  imagery  appeared  first 
in  consciousness  it  was  localized  above  him  in  the  mass  of  trees 
which  was  to  be  avoided  by  means  of  muscular  movement.  Simi- 
larly the  visualized  movements  of  the  fish  which  he  had  hooked 
were  rendered  black  before  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  pulling  on  the 
line  appeared  in  consciousness,  and  remained  black  throughout  the 
subsequent  presence  of  this  kinaesthetic  imagery.  Again,  kinaes- 
thetic imagery  of  the  tugs  on  the  line  as  the  fish  struck  the  hook 
was  represented  in  consciousness  by  visual  synaesthetic  imagery 
not  localized  in  the  usual  fashion  in  the  region  of  the  muscles  in- 
volved but  projected  out  to  the  end  of  the  fish-line  as  two  black 
blots.  In  each  instance  the  quality  of  black  was  the  forerunner 
of  a  kinaesthetic  image,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  two  black 
blots  projected  out  at  some  distance  from  the  observer  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  the  quality  of  black  meant  an  anticipated  kinaes- 
thetic image.  One  would  have  expected  that  if  A  were  about  to 
anticipate  a  kinaesthetic  image  he  would  have  visualized  the  willow 

[70  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

and  alder  trees,  the  movements  of  the  fish  and  the  tugging  of  the 
fish  at  the  end  of  his  line,  all  in  ordinary  fashion  and  in  their 
natural  colors,  and  would  then  have  had  visual  imagery  of  black- 
ened regions  localized  in  the  musculature  involved  in  the  subse- 
quent kinaesthetic  imagery.  But  there  was  evidently  a  process 
of  foreshortening  in  his  mental  processes.  He  left  out  the  black 
regions  localized  in  the  musculature  and  instead,  blackened  the 
antecedent  visual  imagery.  One  might  interpret  this  state  of  af- 
fairs as  a  process  of  attenuation  or  short  cutting  in  A's  mental 
functions  where  synaesthetic  processes  are  involved ;  or  one  might 
assume  that  a  process  of  irradiation  has  taken  place  in  a  forward 
direction  in  the  particular  response  pattern  which  involved,  for 
example,  willow  trees  and  crouching  movements.  Whatever  may  be 
the  particular  method  by  which  synaesthetic  functions  thus  affect 
adjacent  mental  contents  in  any  given  complex  of  imagery  it  is 
evident  that  we  here  find  a  situation  similar  to  that  described  in 
introspection  6,  We  there  noted  that  visual  imagery  of  a  particu- 
lar person  was  identified  in  terms  of  the  same  color  which  appeared 
in  connection  with  that  person's  voice.  We  found  that  all  imagery 
having  to  do  with  that  particular  person  was  affected  by  this  same 
color,  obviously  pointing  to  the  fact  that  the  color  had  to  do  with 
meaning.  So  in  the  peculiar  functioning  of  synaesthetic  processes 
which  we  have  just  been  considering,  willow  trees  meant  something 
to  A  aside  from  being  mere  willow  trees;  they  were  trees-to-be- 
avoided-in-kinaesthetic-fashion  and  this  meaning  was  present  in 
terms  of  trees  visualized  in  black — the  black  of  the  forthcoming 
kinaesthetic  imagery  of  crouching.  The  movements  of  the  fish 
meant  to  A  movements-to-be-checked  and  were  thus  colored  the 
black  of  kinaesthetic  movements  of  pulling  on  the  line.  The  black 
blots  mentioned  above  present  a  similar  problem. 

Accordingly  A  did  not  have  to  stop  and  think:  ''Here 
are  willow  trees  which  are  very  close  to  my  head  and  therefore  if 
I  do  not  crouch  down  I  will  hit  them  or  my  fish  tackle  will  become 
fouled."  The  meaning  of  the  entire  siutation  was  reduced  to  its 
simplest  terms — black  trees.  The  visualized  movements  of  the  fish 
meant  more  than  mere  movements  of  the  fish.  The  movements 
were  black  and  thus  they  meant:  "The  fish  is  darting  rapidly 
about  in  the  water;  I  must  keep  the  line  taut."  Such  is  syncopa- 
tion in  meaning  par  excellence!    As  visual  imagery  of  a  person  is 

[71] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

colored  and  thus  comes  to  mean  imagery-of-a-cer^ain-person,  so 
imagery  of  a  willow  tree  and  the  movement  of  a  fish  come  to  mean, 
in  a  memory  consciousness,  objects-which-were-responded-to-in- 
certain  fashion. 

C.  Series  3.  Imagery  in  constructive  imagination, 
i.  Typical  introspective  data. 

[Instructions:  Imagine  yourself  standing  upon  the  corner  of  25th  and 
Broadway,  New  York  City,  and  give  a  complete  introspective  description  of 
your  mental  processes.] 

48.  Observer  A.  "(I  assume  that  I  was  standing  on  the  curb  for  the  reason 
that  I  was  aware  of  people  passing  behind  me  and  of  the  traffic  in  front  of 
me.)  At  the  outset  I  was  aware  of  visualizing  a  telephone  pole  very  near  me 
at  my  right  side;  it  was  a  typical  Oregon  second-growth  fir  pole,  colored  the 
light  yellow-tan  of  fir  wood  with  the  bark  just  removed;  this  imagery  extended 
only  to  my  shoulders  and  loomed  up  vividly  in  front  of  a  grey  background. 
Together  with  this  imagery  I  had  very  faint  tactual  imagery  of  a  'tingling' 
in  the  skin  about  my  forehead  and  an  incipient  kinaesthetic  process  of  drawing 
away  from  the  image  of  the  pole;  all  of  this  constituted  an  awareness  that  the 
pole  was  very  near  me.  Next  my  attention  turned  to  visual  imagery  of  a  paved 
street,  in  a  light  cement-like  grey,  which  presented  a  smooth  appearance  un- 
broken or  uninterrupted  by  street  car  lines  or  moving  objects;  at  this  juncture 
the  street  was  empty;  then  I  completed  this  visual  image  by  seeing  masses  of 
forms,  small  and  large,  dark  and  light,  passing  by  me  in  both  directions  and 
in  two  streams,  the  nearer  one  going  to  the  left  and  the  farther  one  to  the 
right.  Momentarily  I  shifted  my  visual  attention  from  one  of  these  moving 
streams  of  forms  to  the  other  and  tended  to  follow  each  with  eye-movement. 
Along  with  this  visual  imagery  I  had  faint  auditory  imagery  of  wheels  rumbling 
along  the  pavement  and  together  with  this  dim  roar — the  only  auditory  imagery 
appearing  in  the  entire  process  of  imagination — the  grey  of  the  street  became 
darker.  The  brightness  and  distribution  of  these  forms  constantly  changed; 
many  of  the  forms  themselves  were  not  visualized  objects  but  visual  synaesthetic 
images  of  the  varied  sounds  which  characterize  street  traffic;  their  constant 
shiftings  in  brightness  and  in  position  meant  to  me  moving  vehicles  which 
were  'noisy.'  Many  of  these  fleeting  visual  symbols  were  too  sketchy  to  de- 
scribe but  I  singled  out  the  visualized  tooting  of  auto  horns  and  the  chugging 
of  the  motors  by  means  of  concentric  rings  of  differently  shaded  grey  lights 
and  spasmodic  puffs  of  whiter  light.  The  visualized  chugging  of  the  motors 
was  seen  to  issue  from  behind  fleeting  forms  which  latter  meant  the  machines 
themselves.  Concentric  rings  of  shaded  light,  patterned  something  like  the 
markings  of  a  snake,  stood  for  alternating  weak  and  loud  intensities  of  the 
chugging;  the  light  portions  indicated  the  explosions  and  the  fainter  portions 
stood  for  the  intervals  between  the  explosions.  Then  my  visual  attention 
shifted  to  the  far  side  of  the  street  where  I  momentarily  saw  high,  shadowy 
forms  looming  skyward  and  together  with  this  imagery  I  was  aware  of  incipi- 
ent motor  tendencies  in  neck  and  eyes  to  look  upward.  By  attenuing  to  these 
shadow  forms  I  was  able  to  distinguish  large  show  windows  dotted  with  color. 
Then  I  was  aware  of  people  behind  me  in  terms  of  visual  images  of  heels  with 
halos  of  black  around  them;  these  halos  were  visualizations  of  the  noise  of 
footsteps.  I  could  then  build  out,  voluntarily,  masculine  and  feminine  voices, 
not  in  terms  of  auditory  images  but  in  terms  of  silvery  ribbon-shaped  visual 
forms  for  the  feminine  and  darker,  splotchy  clouds  for  the  masculine;  these 
ribbon-shaped  and  cloud-shaped  forms  emanated  from  vaguely  visualized 
mouths.  The  visualized  sounds  claimed  my  attention  and  I  at  no  time  tended 
to  construct  visual  imagery  of  the  persons  themselves.     During  the  entire  pro- 

[72  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

cess  I  had  no  verbal  imagery;  I  had  no  noticeable  motor  imagery  other  than 
what  I  have  mentioned.  (I  have  often  observed  that  I  can  visualize  objects 
directly  behind  my  head  without  tendencies  to  move,  or  at  least  without  notice- 
able tendencies.)  Now,  as  I  project  objects  behind  my  head,  with  attention 
centered  upon  an  Aufgabe  to  notice  any  possible  motor  imagery,  I  am  aware  of 
slight  tendencies  toward  eye-movement.  I  do  not  notice  this  movement,  ordi- 
narily. [Subsequent  tests  revealed  the  fact  that  in  all  shifts  of  visual  atten- 
tion there  was  either  imagery  of  eye-movement  or  incipient  eye  tension.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  A  mentioned  tactual  imagery  early  in  this  introspection 
and  reported  no  accompanying  visual  synaesthetic  imagery.  At  times  such  an 
incident  happens  but  upon  reinstating  this  imagery  or  upon  introspecting  more 
carefully,  it  invariably  turns  out  that  A  had  visual  imagery  and  that  he  was 
describing  the  tactual  image  by  having  recourse  to  the  visual  associate.  Since 
the  visual  associate  meant  that  the  image  was  tactual,  he  called  it  a  tactual 
image.]" 

49.  Observer  B.  Similar  instructions.  "I  hardly  know  where  to  begin. 
There  first  appeared  very  real  and  intense  tactual  imagery  of  the  cement  walk 
beneath  my  feet;  then  followed  auditory  imagery,  relatively  not  so  real  or  in- 
tense as  the  tactual,  of  automobiles  passing  by,  of  wagons,  street  cars,  horses 
and  people  all  hurrying  by  me  in  blurred  confusion  of  noice;  I  detected  the 
rumble  of  people's  voices,  their  footsteps,  the  rustling  of  their  clothes.  All  of 
this  imagery  appeared  and  disappeared  very  rapidly  with  exceedingly  swift 
shifts  of  attention  from  one  detail  to  another.  Then  there  appeared  an  aware- 
ness of  a  large  building  near  me,  consisting  in  part  of  a  'shadow  feeling' — a 
vague,  diffuse  visual  image  of  a  shadow  looming  up  at  my  side,  together  with 
very  slight  and  incipient  tendencies  to  draw  myself  together  as  if  I  were  about 
to  stop,  hesitate,  or  shrink  back.  Then  my  attention  shifted  to  a  different 
group  of  processes  consisting  of  incipient  tensions  about  my  neck  and  chest, 
tendencies  in  the  region  of  the  trunk  and  abdomen  which  I  interpret  as  incipi- 
ent contractions,  a  general  muscular  tendency  to  stand  up  straighter.  All  of 
this  constituted  a  tendency  to  adopt  a  listening  or  expectant  attitude  as  I 
imaged  myself,  kinaesthetic  fashion,  preparing  to  find  my  way  across  the  street. 
Then  appearetl  very  shadowy  and  fleeting  visual  imagery  of  wagon  wheels,  of 
wagons  and  of  automobiles  turning  around  a  corner  toward  me;  this  visual 
imagery  had  no  setting  of  a  visual  sort ;  the  wagon  wheels  were  the  only  objects 
which  approximated  clearness  and  here  I  found,  on  closer  introspection,  that 
my  visual  image  was  two-thirds  kinaesthetic  and  consisted  of  motor  imagery 
of  arm  and  shoulder  as  though  my  hand  were  following  a  certain  point  on  the 
rim  of  the  wheel  during  its  revolutions.  These  experiences  were  followed  by 
affective  processes  consisting  of  chest  tensions,  deeper  breathing,  motor  imagery 
of  unsteadiness — as  if  I  were  nervously  keyed  up  and  found  it  hard  to  tell 
in  what  direction  I  should  proceed  across  the  street.  I  then  had  tactual  imag- 
ery of  the  sun's  warmth  upon  my  face;  tactual  imagery  of  holding  a  cane  in 
my  hand  and  kinaesthetic  imagery  of  gripping  the  cane.  During  all  this  time 
my  attention  had  been  shifting  suddenly  from  one  detail  to  another,  centering 
longer,  however,  on  the  motor  imagery  than  upon  any  other  type." 

[Instructions:  Imagine  yourself  taking  a  flight  in  an  aeroplane.  Report 
your  imagery  and  other  processes  involved.] 

50.  Observer  A.  "To  begin  with  I  had  very  diffused  kinaesthetic  imagery 
of  being  in  a  sitting  position  and  this  imagery,  under  the  instructions,  meant 
sitting  in  an  aeroplane;  this  was  at  once  followed  by  the  beginnings  of  a 
consciousness  that  I  was  in  mid-air — an  interpretation  which,  so  far  as  I  can 
tell,  developed  in  the  absence  of  no  tendencies  toward  slight  muscular  tense- 
ness about  the  face,  shoulders  and  chest.  (Whenever  I  am  conscious  of  being 
near  objects  there  exists  this  tenseness  just  referred  to.)  Then  my  attention 
shifted  to  a  visualized  roaring  of  the  motor  which  consisted  of  a  great  mass 
of  inky  black  rolls  of  smoke  which  seemed  to  cover  an  area  in  space  about  m« 
the  size  of  two  city  blocks.     This  'smoke'  obscured  everything;  it  was  dense 

[73] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

and  thick,  even  rendering  imperceptible  my  entoptic  sensations;  I  was  able  to 
visualize  nothing  in  or  through  this  mass,  neither  was  I  able  to  obtain  any 
auditory  qualities  of  the  roaring  motor.  I  found  it  impossiblg  to  retain  my 
present  vantage  point  in  my  imagery,  and  visualize  any  objects  beneath  me 
or  around  me;  I  had  to  imagine  myself  situated  off  at  one  side  or  beneath 
this  mass  or  imagine  that  the  mass  had  Been  divided  in  two  parts,  leaving  a 
'cut'  through  which  I  could  'see'  objects  in  the  distance.  I  could  not  'see' 
myself  in  the  aeroplane  and  at  the  same  time  visualize  anything  else  but  the 
'smoke,'  for  my  visual  attention  was  claimed  by  this  blackness  under  these 
conditions — i.  e.,  so  long  as  I  was  trying  to  imagine  the  sound  of  the  motor. 
The  instant  I  changed  the  Aufgabe  from  that  of  imaging  the  roaring  motor 
to  that  of  visualizing  objects  around  or  beneath  me,  the  black  'smoke'  dis- 
appeared; it  simply  melted  away.  I  could  not  construct  motor  or  tactual 
imagery  of  being  hurled  through  space  but  I  had  a  faint  organic  sensation  of 
being  lifted  and  dropped  suddenly.  (As  I  introspect  I  am  able  to  obtain 
tactual  imagery  of  wind  pressing  against  my  face  and  auditory  imagery  of 
the  wind  whistling  by  my  ears  but  the  mental  content  is  entirely  visual;  I 
have  no  perceptible  tactual  and  auditory  qualities.)" 

[Instructions:  Imagine  the  world  one  million  years  ago  and  describe  all 
the  mental  processes  involved.] 

5L  Observer  A.  "I  first  had  visual  imagery  of  a  European  map  built  up 
from  my  anthropology  and  geology  studies.  In  this  visual  imagery,  which  cov- 
ered a  large  area  spread  out  before  me  like  a  wall  map,  I  saw  at  first  only  the 
boundary  line  between  France  and  Germany;  the  rest  of  the  map  then  cleared 
up  and  my  visual  attention  suddenly  shifted  and  I  seemed  to  be  in  space  just 
above  a  flat  expanse  of  territory,  rank  with  vegetation.  This  consisted  of  a 
rapid  melting  away  of  my  visualized  map  before  the  developing  visual  image 
of  a  vast  plane,  colored  a  rich,  deep  green,  and  on  which,  here  and  there,  I 
distinctly  made  out  thickly  growing  fern  stems  and  patches  of  palm  leaves 
stretched  out  like  fans.  These  latter  were  of  a  still  darker  green  and  were 
smooth  and  waxy  in  appearance.  Then  I  had  visual  imagery  of  huge  masto- 
dons, in  which  only  their  huge  bulks  and  general  forms  were  definitely  outlined; 
they  were  elephant-color.  The  scene  suddenly  changed  to  a  'close-up'  view  of 
one  of  these  beasts;  here  I  visualized  the  huge  head  with  two  long,  curved, 
shiny,  white  tusks;  narrow  slits  where  the  eyes  belong,  colored  almost  a  black, 
and  two  flap  shaped  ears.  I  then  constructed,  in  my  visual  imagery,  fairly 
definite  details  about  the  joints  of  the  forelegs.  The  imagery  did  not  include 
definite  details  about  the  remaining  portions  of  the  animal;  the  remainder  of 
my  visual  image  of  it  merely  included  an  undifferentiated  mass  of  grey  assum- 
ing the  general  shape  of  an  elephant  but  larger.  Then  I  had  very  fleeting 
visual  imagery  of  a  saber-toothed  tiger — a  fleeting  cat-like  form,  streaked  with 
color,  slinking  through  the  rank  vegetative  growth.  This  was  followed  by 
visual  imagery  of  a  primitive  man,  standing  in  a  clearing  before  me;  the  clear- 
ing was  suggested  by  the  lightness  of  the  green  about  him,  compared  to  the 
dark  forest  background  which  had  characterized  my  previous  imagery.  I  saw 
this  man  naked,  of  stout,  hairy  body,  with  the  hair  especially  black  (blackness 
representing  thickness)  on  his  chest  and  on  the  front  sides  of  his  arms.  On 
his  chest  there  stood  out  very  plainly  little  curly  tufts  in  which  I  could  make 
out  individual  hairs;  in  this  visual  imagery  there  also  stood  out  the  fact  that 
the  hair  ran  in  different  directions  on  different  parts  of  the  body,  suggested 
by  the  shading  in  the  blackness.  Then  I  saw  the  man  skulking  about  and  trying 
to  keep  as  closely  under  the  cover  of  the  forest  as  possible.  The  entire  ex- 
perience was  rich  in  detail — the  details  standing  out  one  after  another  as 
visual  attention  shifted  from  one  feature  in  my  imagery  to  another.  There 
was  no  break  in  visual  continuity  and  no  tendency  for  visual  imagery  to  shift 
or  give  way  to  imagery  in  any  other  modality.  Was  not  conscious  of  vocal- 
motor  imagery  at  any  time  during  the  experience." 

r74i 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

52.  Observer  B.  [Instructions  same  as  for  introspection  51.]  «(I  was  in- 
tensely surprised  to  have  fairly  vivid  visual  imagery.)  There  first  appeared 
rather  lasting,  clear  and  intense  visual  imagery  of  green  trees,  swaying  in  the 
wind.  I  saw  them  going  on  and  on  in  the  distance,  indefinitely,  tossing  and 
tossing,  one  set  of  branches  giving  way  to  another  as  if  I  were  passing  them 
on  a  moving  stage.  (I  suppose  that  this  imagery  was  not  as  perfect  or  de- 
tailed as  would  have  been  the  imagery  of  a  sighted  person,  nor  was  it  as  stable.) 
This  imagery  lasted  perhaps  for  a  second  but  it  seemed  much  longer,  and  then 
faded  into  kinaesthetic-tactual  imagerj*  of  lying  flat  on  my  stomach  and  of 
reaching  my  arms  out  over  a  sea  of  space  and  what  was  my  visualized  field  of 
branches  but  an  instant  before;  very  vivid  and  intense  was  the  imagery  of 
upper  arm  and  shoulder  as  I  imaged  myself  swinging  my  arms  and  together 
with  this  there  appeared  almost  equally  as  intense  imagery,  with  incipient 
movements,  of  taking  long  deep  breaths.  All  of  this  called  up  vocal-motor 
imagery  of  such  words  as  'gigantic',  'sweeping',  'forest',  'primeval',  'ter- 
rible vastness',  'massive'  and  the  like.  Then  I  was  aware  of  kinaesthetic 
imagery  of  making  large  sweeping  arcs  with  my  arm,  as  if  I  were  pointing 
out  to  some  one  a  vast  expansive  territory.  There  then  followed  tactual  imag- 
ery of  thick  grass  about  my  feet  and  of  grass  twining  around  my  ankles." 

[Instructions:      Imagine  yourself  walking  a  tight-rope.] 

53.  Observer  A.  "At  first  I  could  get  very  complicated  kinaesthetic  imag- 
ery, together  with  visual  imagery  of  the  rope  stretched  beneath  my  feet  and 
visual  imagery  of  my  feet  upon  the  rope.  The  ends  of  the  roi>e  were  not 
visible  nor  were  the  objects  to  which  the  rope  was  attached.  The  motor  imag- 
ery consisted  first  of  swaying  my  legs  rapidly  to  and  fro  sidewise  as  the  ropQ 
swayed  in  that  fashion ;  for  a  moment  this  imagery  was  localized  very  distinctly 
in  my  knees  and  calves;  then  this  motor  imagery  expanded  to  include  shoulders, 
back  and  arms,  as  I  seemed  to  be  swaying  my  body  in  an  effort  to  keep  my 
balance.  This  series  of  motor  imagp.s  was  continuous  both  kinaesthetically 
and  visually;  I  could  attend  momentarily  to  the  kinaesthetic  qualities  of 
motion  but  the  instant  my  kinaesthetic  attention  began  to  shift  from  one 
motor  image  to  the  next,  the  preceding  image,  then  'tapering  off'  in  attention, 
had  turned  into  a  visual  image  of  a  black  area  localized  where  the  motor 
imagery  had  been  localized  and  formed  into  a  moving  streak  or  ribbon,  repre- 
senting the  extent  and  direction  of  the  motor  imagerj'  itself.  If  I  tried  to 
hold  this  diHa])pearing  motor  image  in  consciousness  I  inevitably  found  that 
it  had  vanished  and  that  I  was  attending  to  a  visual  synaesthetic  image  of 
the  movement  instead."  [From  this  introspection  it  would  seem  that  kinaes- 
thetic imagery  shifts  to  visual  less  suddenly  than  does  imagery  in  A's  other 
non-visual  nuidalities.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  kinaesthetic  imagery  may 
tend  to  occupy  focal  attention  so  long  as  A  makes  no  voluntary  effort  to  hold 
it  there,  and  that  the  kinaesthetic  process  may  not  beccmie  visual  until  it  has 
nearly  run  its  course  in  consciousness.  It  does  become  visual,  however,  before 
it  entirely  fades  from  non-focal  consciousness.] 

?"/.  Summary  of  introspective  data  on  processes  of  imagination. 

Observer  A.  A's  imaginative  processes  are  dominantly  visual 
and  this  visual  imagery  is  of  two  sorts:  (1)  visualizations  of  ob- 
jects, scenes,  etc.,  and  (2)  synaesthetic  imagery  which  appears 
either  with  or  without  the  primary  imagerj'  whose  qualities  and 
behavior  it  "takes  over."  Kinaesthetic  imagery  appears  next  in 
order  of  frequency,  followed  by  tactual  and  then  auditory.  All  of 
these  non-visual  "images"  tend  to  shift  at  once  into  their  visual 
accompaniments,  the  kinaesthetic  type  being  delayed  in  this  shift, 

[75  1 


The  Synaesihesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

at  times,  with  the  result  that  it  seems  to  occupy  consciousness 
momentarily,  almost  by  itself.  Auditory  imagery  is  practically 
confined  to  the  auditory  accompaniments  of  verbal  imagery,  and 
here  the  motor  factor  is  much  stronger  than  the  auditory;  both 
tend  at  once  to  change  into  visual  associates.  Of  interest  is  the 
rareness  with  which  tactual  imagery  appears  in  A's  imaginative 
processes,  and  its  confinement  largely  to  tactual-kinaesthetic-visual 
complexes. 

We  find,  as  in  our  previous  series  of  experiments,  that  A's 
visual  images  are  relatively  much  richer  in  details  of  hue  and 
brightness  than  in  details  of  shape  and  outline.  Accordingly,  A 
pronounces  his  imagery  rich  in  detail  if  in  its  general  shape  and 
form  it  is  relatively  persistent,  or  if  his  visual  attention  shifts,  un- 
disturbed, from  one  rather  vaguely  outlined  object  or  region  in 
his  imagery  to  another.  Indefiniteness  of  minute  detail  and  indis- 
tinctness of  outline  may  possibly  be  due  to  A's  17  years  of  blind- 
ness. In  visualizing  the  traffic  of  a  city  street,  A  sees  but  passing 
shapes  and  forms  for  wagons,  horses,  automobiles  and  the  like;  in 
visualizing  an  office  building,  dots  and  patches  of  color  represent 
objects  on  display  in  the  show-windows;  details  of  construction 
such  as  small  bricks,  large  stone  blocks  and  the  like  do  not  appear 
unless  under  a  special  Aufgahe  to  construct  them  voluntarily.  The 
rank  tropical  vegetation  of  a  jungle  is  represented  by  darkness, 
"thickness"  or  richness  of  the  green  color  in  the  imagery  and  by 
glimpses  of  massed  fern  stems,  clusters  of  "waxy"  green  fan- 
shaped  palm  leaves  and  the  like.     Details  are  otherwise  lacking. 

Structurally  A's  visual  imagery  may  not  differ  from  the  same 
type  of  imagery  in  a  poor  visualizer,  but  functionally  A's  visual 
imagery  is  more  important  to  him  than  is  similar  imagery  in  a 
sighted  person  who  is  asynaesthetic.  The  poor  visualizer,  as  for 
example  our  other  blind  reagent,  has  a  wealth  of  other  imagery 
which  compensates  for  a  dearth  of  visual  detail.  Whenever  and 
wherever  visual  imagery  appears  in  A's  consciousness,  it  occupies 
the  focus  of  attention  no  matter  how  vague  or  imperfect  that 
imagery  may  be.  The  poor  visualizer 's  attention  may  be  centered 
and  usually  is  centered  upon  details  of  other  types  of  imagery  with 
the  result  that  visual  imagery  itself  seldom  occupies  the  focus  of 
attention. 

[76] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

A's  introspections  on  his  imaginative  processes  confirm  our 
previous  findings  with  respect  to  the  functioning  of  synaesthetic 
processes ;  for  not  only  do  non- visual  images  always  merge  into  the 
same  stereotyped  visual  associates  as  appear  in  corresponding  pro- 
cesses of  perceiving,  but  these  visual  associates,  now  detached  from 
their  parent  processes,  symbolize  original  sensory  experiences  from 
the  non-visual  modalities.  For  example,  feminine  and  masculine 
voices  were  represented  by  silvery,  ribbon-shaped  streaks  of  color 
and  dark  grey,  splotchy  clouds  respectively.  The  chugging  of  an 
automobile  motor,  the  tooting  of  horns,  the  roaring  of  an  aeroplane 
motor  were  likewise  represented  by  variously  colored  and  shaped 
visual  synaesthetic  images.  Tactual  imagery  of  a  cold  wave  dash- 
ing over  the  body,  and  difference  in  pressure  against  the  balls  of 
the  feet  in  walking  over  rough  ground  were  present  in  conscious- 
ness wholly  in  visual  terms.  In  none  of  these  instances  were  any 
non-visual  qualities  present  to  consciousness.  The  hue,  brightness, 
shape,  size,  and  behavior  of  the  visual  images  represented  the  non- 
visual  qualities  and  the  behavior  of  the  missing  non-visual  elements. 

Observer  B.  Kinaesthetic  imagery  dominates  in  B's  imagina- 
tive processes,  followed  by  auditory  and  then  tactual.  Visual 
imagery  is  the  least  frequent  and  seems  to  appear  more  or  less  as 
a  surprise  to  the  reagent.  The  same  features  characterize  these 
different  types  of  images  as  were  found  in  our  previous  experi- 
ments. Organic  processes  frequently  accompany  B^s  imaginations 
and  are  for  the  most  part  incipient  innervations  of  muscular  move- 
ment rather  than  imagery.  In  fact  the  reality  and  vividness  of 
organic  and  kinaesthetic  processes  is  throughout  B's  consciousness 
correlated  directly  with  the  extent  of  incipient  motor  responses, 
in.  Observers  A  and  B  compared. 

B  is  more  imaginative  in  his  everyday  mental  life  than  is  A  and 
consistent  with  this  fact  we  find  that  B's  imagery  in  processes  of 
imagination  are  richer  in  detail,  faster  in  appearance  and  disap- 
pearance and  subject  to  longer  and  more  complex  groupings  and 
successions. 

As  in  previous  experiments  we  find  that  B*s  attention  is  domi- 
nantly  kinaesthetic  while  A's  is  dominantly  visual.  But  again  we 
find  no  parallel  contents  in  B's  mental  life  similar  in  function  to 
A's  synaesthetic  phenomena.  For  example,  if  B  has  kinaesthetic 
imagery  of  a  circle,  this  kinaesthetic  imagery  is  not  a  symbol  for  a 

[77  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

visualized  circle ;  one  form  of  kinaesthetic  imagery  does  not  repre- 
sent a  white  circle  on  a  black  background  and  another  form  of 
kinaesthetic  imagery  does  not  stand  for  a  black  circle  on  a  white 
background.  That  is,  there  are  no  properties  of  this  motor  imag- 
ery which  stand  for  former  visual  experiences.  A's  visual  imagery 
represents  specific  qualities  and  modes  of  behavior  of  non-visual 
processes.  Thus  B's  kinaesthetic  backgrounds  and  A's  visual  back- 
grounds function  in  different  fashions ;  the  former  supplement  and 
indirectly  render  more  definite  such  processes  as  appear  in  non- 
kinaesthetic  modalities  while  the  latter  directly  define  and  take  the 
place  of  such  processes  as  tend  to  appear  in  non-visual  modalities. 
Furthermore,  while  B's  kinaesthetic  images  have  possibly  come 
to  take  the  place  of  decayed  visual  functions,  the  former  do  not 
stand  for  or  directly  define  the  latter.  A's  visual  synaesthetic 
images  function  more  than  in  the  capacity  of  visualizations  of  ob- 
jects; they  function  further  than  as  a  mere  substitution  for  de- 
cayed modalities. 

iv.  Significance  of  A's  synaesthetic    phenomena   in   processes    of 

imagination. 

Aside  from  confirming  our  previous  findings  with  respect  to  A^s 
synaesthetic  phenomena,  a  study  of  his  imaginative  processes  re- 
veals added  significant  facts  concerning  the  role  which  these 
phenomena  play  in  consciousness.  First,  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
organic  and  kinaesthetic  imagery  is  slightly  delayed,  at  times,  com- 
pared with  imagery  from  other  non-visual  modalities,  in  the  process 
of  shifting  to  its  visual  accompaniment.  Although  we  had  found 
some  evidence  of  this  in  our  earlier  experiments  the  relatively 
greater  frequency  of  organic  and  kinaesthetic  factors  in  A's  imagi- 
native consciousness  than  in  types  of  consciousness  studied  in  our 
previous  series  has  brought  this  difference  into  the  foreground. 
This  delay  in  the  tendency  for  organic  and  kinaesthetic  images  to 
shift  into  visual  processes  means  that  they  approach  in  their  origi- 
nal form  nearer  to  the  focus  of  attention  than  do  other  non-visual 
images.  As  a  result  A  is  able  to  ascribe  to  them  more  definite  at- 
tributes of  their  own.  These  facts  suggest  that  a  kinaesthetic 
process  is  so  important,  as  such,  in  mental  life,  that  no  non-kinaes- 
thetic  process  can  function  as  an  adequate  symbol  for  it.  It  seems 
safe  to  conclude,  therefore,  that  in  A's  case  we  find  no  exception  to 

[78] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

the  general  rule  that  kinaesthetic  processes  are  essential  constituents 
of  mental  life.  In  A's  case  there  are  imaginative  situations,  par- 
ticularly those  which  involve  bodily  movement  or  adjustment, 
bodily  attitudes  or  motor  attitudes  as  they  are  more  often  called, 
which  are  more  or  less  implicitly  capable  of  functioning  in  the  de- 
velopment of  meaning.  At  least  they  are  sufficiently  capable  of 
so  functioning  that  their  transition  into  subsequent  and  definitizing 
visual  processes  is  delayed. 

We  are  inclined  to  regard  this  exception  to  A's  synaesthetic 
functioning  as  not  only  one  which  was  to  be  expected  but  one  which 
throws  added  light  upon  the  nature  of  synaesthesia  itself  and  also 
upon  the  real  value  of  consciousness.  If  we  assume  that  the  func- 
tion of  consciousness  is  that  of  evoking  bodily  movements — explicit 
behavior — we  should  expect  that  motor  imagery  itself,  because  of 
the  fact  that  it  is  direct  imagery  of  movement,  should  most  readily 
of  all  imagery  arouse  movement  and  particularly  that  movement 
which  the  motor  image  anticipates.  On  the  other  hand  one  would 
expect  that  visual,  auditory  and  tactual  imagery  might  all  lead  to 
movement  with  approximately  equal  readiness.  Thus,  in  A's  case 
the  visual  concomitants  of  auditory  and  tactual  processes  would 
function  quite  as  efficiently  in  controlling  co-ordinated  explicit 
behavior  as  might  the  auditory  or  tactual  processes  themselves.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  we  have  seen  that  in  his  case  the  latter  function  in 
consciousness  more  readily  than  do  the  former.  Hence  it  may  be 
that  his  visual  functions  have  a  closer  connection  with  bodily  move- 
ment and  hence  function  more  readily  in  consciousness  because 
they  more  readil}-  lead  to  overt  response  than  do  the  non-visual 
processes  for  which  the  visual  images  stand.  We  might  assume  by 
way  of  explaining  this  situation  physiologically,  that  visual  func- 
tions are  more  closely  integrated  with  the  motor  projection  areas 
of  the  brain  than  are  his  non-visual  functions. 

Furthermore,  since  kinaesthetic  imagery  is  apparently  more 
closely  connected  with  efferent  projection  centers  than  any  other 
type  of  imagery — witness  the  frequency  with  which  kinaesthetic 
imagery  is  accompanied  by  or  with  which  it  leads  to  incipient  in- 
nervations— even  A's  synaesthetic  visual  images  do  not  always  take 
the  place  of  kinaesthetic  qualities,  in  consciousness.  All  the  more 
plausible  becomes  this  view  when  we  notice  that  kinaesthetic  imag- 
ery is  delayed  in  shifting  to  its  visual  accompaniment  only  when  it 
is  definitely  followed  by  incipient  movement. 

[79] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

D.  Series  4.  Free  associations. 

i.  Typical  introspective  data. 

[Instructions:  I  am  going  to  present  to  you  a  word  in  auditory  fashion 
to  which  I  want  you  to  respond  orally  with  the  first  word  which  enters  your 
mind.     Eeady.     Now,] 

58.  Observer  B.  <'While  the  experimenter  was  reading  the  instructions  I 
was  focally  aware  of  his  voice,  together  with  increasing  tendencies  to  sit  more 
erect  in  my  chair,  to  contract  about  the  chest,  shoulders,  face  and  throat. 
There  was  also  a  slight  tendency  to  hold  my  breath.  The  whole  process  thus 
far  consisted  of  an  attitude  of  alertness  in  which  my  attention  was  centered, 
in  auditory  fashion,  upon  the  experimenter's  voice.  This  latter  fixation  of 
attention  consisted  of  tendencies  to  lean  in  the  direction  of  the  experimenter 
and  to  become  conscious  of  faint  sounds  in  the  region  of  my  right  ear  which 
was  nearest  the  experimenter.  Then  I  perceived  the  word  'whistle.'  For  an 
instant  this  dominated  attention  and  the  quality,  enunciation  and  other  details 
of  the  auditory  perception  stood  out  focally  in  consciousness,  one  following 
the  other;  just  at  this  juncture  I  noticed  a  general  tendency  toward  muscular 
contraction  in  the  region  of  the  abdomen  and  chest  as  if  I  were  inhibiting 
my  breathing,  together  with  marked  tensions  in  the  back  of  my  throat;  these 
latter  developed  into  incipient  tendencies  to  assume  a  mouth  and  throat  posi- 
tion as  if  to  whistle  and  were  accompanied  by  very  faint  and  sketchy  auditory- 
Tocal-motor  imagery  of  the  word  'whistle.'  Just  as  my  attention  was  linger- 
ing upon  these  developing  tensions  I  found  myself  beginning  to  innervate  a 
word,  the  movements  of  which  seemed  to  be  derived  from  the  positions  of  my 
lips  previously  taken  in  assuming  a  mouth  position  to  blow.  I  then  found 
myself  saying  'blow'  out  loud.  I  was  not  aware  of  the  word  as  such  before 
I  said  it;  neither  was  I  conscious  of  any  antecedent  imagery  which  might  have 
suggested  it  other  than  what  I  have  described." 

59.  Observer  A.  Similar  instructions.  Word:  whistle.  Eesponse:  boy. 
((*  •  *  As  I  heard  the  word  'whistle'  I  found  my  attention  at  once  leaving 
the  quality  of  the  experimenter's  voice  and  shifting  to  a  visual  image  of  a 
white,  cloud-like  form  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  pillow  case,  with  the  visual 
quality  a  linen-white.  This  image  was  localized  in  space  in  front  of  me  at  a 
distance  of  about  six  feet.  The  right  edge  of  this  form — toward  the  experi- 
menter— was  much  brighter  than  the  rest  and  glowed  as  the  reflected  light 
from  a  white  crystal  might  glow;  (this  I  discovered  was  due  to  the  'sss' 
sound  from  the  word  'whistle'.)  This  visual  image  persisted  but  at  once 
began  to  drift  upward  and  to  the  right.  My  attention  was  momentarily  ab- 
sorbed in  wondering  what  caused  this  colored  form ;  I  then  became  conscious 
of  the  task  in  terms  of  a  developing  strained  condition  in  my  throat  and  in  a 
tendency  to  repeat  the  word  'whistle'  in  terms  of  auditory-vocal-motor  imagery 
of  my  own  voice;  but  this  latter  imagery  had  but  just  begun  to  develop  when 
my  attention  was  claimed  visually  by  an  image  of  a  boy  with  only  head  and 
shoulders  showing  and  with  no  detail  of  eyes  or  other  facial  features.  The 
general  size  and  shape  of  the  image  indicated  that  it  represented  a  boy  rather 
than  a  man  or  woman.  All  during  this  time  the  synaesthetic  image  mentioned 
above  was  persisting  non-focally  in  consciousness  and  was  drifting  off  into  the 
upper  left  hand  field  of  vision.  Upon  the  appearance  of  the  boy  in  visual 
imagery  I  found  myself  tending  to  relax  about  the  abdomen  and  shoulders  as 
if  the  task  were  over,  but  the  strain  in  my  throat  became  greater  and  I  found 
my  attention  shifting  from  my  visual  image  to  my  throat  region  which  was 
subsequently  visualized  in  black.  Then  I  first  became  aware  of  the  fact  that 
I  was  trying  to  say  something  and  couldn't.  After  a  period  of  brief  delay  I 
found  myself  saying,  suddenly,  'boy'  and  along  with  this  vocalization  there 
appeared  a  dark  grey,  almost  inky  smudge  in  the  center  of  my  field  of  vision, 
entirely  obliterating  my  visual  image  of  the  boy.     This  smudge  was  the  stere- 

[80] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

otyped  visual  counterpart  of  the  word  'boy'  and  is  determined  largely  by  the 
letter  'b'.  (For  a  moment  during  the  reaction  I  was  satisfied  that  my  visual 
image  of  a  boy  was  my  response  to  the  stimulus  word.)" 

60.  Observer  B.  Instructions  the  same  as  before.  Word:  become.  Re- 
sponse: becoming.  Reaction  time,  3  and  3-5  seconds.  '*0n  hearing  the  word 
'become'  I  had  some  auditory  imagery  which  I  have  entirely  forgotten  owing, 
presumably,  to  the  intensity  of  my  efforts  to  find  a  stimulus  word.  Following 
this  auditory  imagery  my  attention  was  claimed  by  rapidly  developing  and  long 
persisting  tensions  localized  about  my  abdomen  and  chest,  by  undiflFerentiated 
organic  reactions  which  I  think  involved  respiratory  and  circulatory  changes, 
all  of  which  constituted  a  feeling  of  ghastness.  This  long  and  drawn-out 
motor  reaction  was  followed  by  a  spontaneous  vocalization  of  the  word  'gee!' 
Then  I  was  aware  of  faint  and  syncopated  auditory  imagery  of  professor  R. 
talking  about  'becoming',  but  the  word  'becoming'  itself  stood  out  no  more 
clearly  than  did  any  of  the  other  auditory  imagery.  Following  this  waa  a 
short  period  of  utter  blankness  of  mind  so  far  as  imagery  was  concerned, 
characterized  by  a  lingering  attention  upon  my  motor  tenseness.  Then  audi- 
tory imagery  of  the  stimulus  word  appeared  and  persisted  for  some  little  time, 
then  for  only  the  briefest  instant  of  time  my  attention  shifted  to  auditory 
imagery  of  professor  R's  voice  again  and  this  was  immediately  followed  by 
sudden  vocalization  of  the  word  'becoming'." 

61.  Observer  A.  Similar  instructions.  Word:  become.  Response:  three. 
"As  I  heard  the  word  'become'  I  found  my  attention  at  once  shifting  from 
the  sound  of  the  word  to  a  peculiarly  shaped  visual  image  like  that  of  a  letter 
*B'  lying  on  its  belly.  The  left  half  of  this  image  was  dark  grey;  the  right 
half  was  the  color  of  bee's-wax.  This  whole  image  drifted  off  from  my  field 
of  vision  and  I  found  my  attention  momentarily  occupied  with  the  entoptic 
phenomena  which  were  left.  I  then  reinstated  the  visual  image  just  described 
and  at  this  juncture  I  was  first  aware  of  the  moaning  of  'become';  up  to  this 
time  I  had  not  grasped  the  meaning  of  the  word.  I  could  not  have  told  you 
what  the  stimulus  word  was  until  after  this  visual  associate  appeared  the  sec- 
ond time  (having  been  'yanked  back'  into  consciousness  by  eye-movement); 
it  seemed  to  me  as  if  I  were  re-attending  to  the  stimulus  word  itselt,  although 
there  was  no  auditory  or  vocal-motor  imagery  present  to  consciousness.  With 
no  warning  this  visual  image  shifted  its  position,  turning  up  upon  one  end, 
and  the  bee's  wax  turned  into  a  deeper  re<ldish-buff;  my  attention  was  auto- 
matically claimed  by  this  new  color;  with  no  further  inter^'ening  processes 
this  color  meant  'three'  to  me;  I  tended  to  have  the  word  'three'  in  vocal- 
motor  imagery  and  together  with  this  fleeting  verbal  image  the  color  became 
more  saturated  and  more  definite  in  shape.  I  then  found  myself  responding 
orally  with  the  word  'three'."  [This  shows  how  in  .1 '.s  mental  life  one  visual 
associate  will  suggest  another,  just  as  in  ordinary  consciousness  one  image 
suggests  another.  A  's  processes  of  association  in  this  experiment  took  place 
entirely  within  the  visual  modality.] 

62.  Observer  A.  Similar  instructions,  with  the  added  Aufijabc  to  watch  for 
processes  other  than  visual,  if  any.  The  stimulus  word  was  'genus'.  Re- 
sponse: man.  "While  waiting  for  the  stimulus  word  to  be  given  my  attention 
was  fixed  upon  my  thnmt  and  I  was  aware  in  tactualkinaestheticvisual  terms 
of  localized  strains  in  my  throat  muscles.  UjKin  hearing  the  stimulus  word 
there  appeared  a  bright  area  about  like  sunlight  in  the  center  of  my  field  of 
vision;  this  image  claimed  focal  attention  to  the  exclusion  of  any  consciousness 
of  kinaesthetic  or  other  processes.  The  white  light  came  from  the  'ge'  sound 
in  genus.  I  then  became  aware  of  the  instructions  and  immediately  found 
myself  again  visualizing  my  throat  and  trying  to  attend  to  the  kinaesthetic 
and  tactual  processes  from  throat  position  and  strain.     Thereupon  the  whitish 

[81] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

light  disappeared  and  with  this  disappearance  of  my  visual  image  I  found 
that  I  had  lost  consciousness  of  the  stimulus  word.  By  this  time  I  became 
conscious  of  keeping  the  experimenter  waiting  too  long  for  my  response,  con- 
sisting of  tendencies  to  visualize  the  experimenter.  As  a  result  of  this  my 
awareness  of  my  throat  also  tapered  off  suddenly  into  obscurity.  My  response 
'man'  came  evidently  as  a  direct  association  with  my  visual  image  of  the  ex- 
perimenter, for  immediately  following  this  image  of  him  I  found  myself  vocal- 
izing the  word  'man'.  With  this  vocalization  there  appeared  the  yellowish 
synaesthesia  of  the  word  'man'." 

63.  Observer  B.  Instructions  as  before  for  observer  B.  Stimulus  word: 
after.  Eesponse:  before.  "Following  the  perception  of  the  experimenter's 
voice  I  was  aware  of  very  vivid  and  intense  auditory  imagery  of  the  stimulus 
word,  then  of  a  schematic  kinaesthetic  image  of  my  own  throat  and  lips  as- 
suming a  position  to  repeat  the  word.  There  followed  a  moment  of  hesitation 
in  which  my  attention  was  centered  upon  the  strained  condition  in  my  throat. 
Then,  with  no  antecedent  process  or  no  warning,  I  found  myself  repeating  in 
voeal-motor-auditory  imagery  the  word  'before'  and  vocalized  it  at  once." 

64.  Observer  A.  Instructions  as  before  for  observer  A.  Stimulus  word: 
after.  Eesponse:  brown.  "There  first  appeared,  together  with  my  auditory 
perception  of  the  stimulus  word,  a  shapeless  cloud  of  calf-brown  color.  My 
attention  went  at  once  focally  to  this  color.  At  no  time  was  I  focally  conscious 
of  the  auditory  qualities  of  the  word  or  of  the  experimenter's  voice.  For  an 
instant  I  paused,  during  which  time  attention  shifted,  non-focally,  to  the  region 
of  my  throat  and  I  had  the  vocal-motor  image:  'What  is  it?'  referring  to  the 
calf-brown  color  which  was  aroused  by  the  stimulus  word.  As  if  in  answer  to 
this  question,  I  found  my  attention  lingering  upon  this  brown  visual  image 
and  myself  saying  the  word  '  brown '  in  vocal-motor  imagery.  The  brown  was 
due  to  the  'ft'  sound  in  the  word  'after'.  At  no  time  during  the  experiment 
was  I  aware  of  the  meaning  of  the  full  word.  I  was  aware,  however,  that  the 
brown  meant  '  ft '  sound." 

65.  Observer  A.  Similar  instructions.  Word:  nerve.  Eesponse:  'ous'. 
"Just  as  the  word  was  perceived,  a  light  yellow  patch  of  color  appeared,  slight- 
ly pear-shaped  but  relatively  longer  at  the  small  end  than  a  pear.  The  left 
portion  of  the  color-patch  represented  the  'ner'  of  'nerve.'  But  the  experi- 
menter had  no  sooner  finished  saying  the  word  when  this  color  patch  extended 
along  the  neck  of  the  narrower  portion  and  there  became  a  much  brighter 
yellow  and  I  found  that,  at  the  same  time,  I  was  having  auditory-vocal-motor 
imagery  of  'ous'.  The  bright  yellow  is  the  synaesthetic  associate  for  'ous' 
sound.  This  brilliant  yellow,  together  with  the  vocal-motor  image  of  'ous' 
persisted  so  long  in  focal  attention  that  I  found  my  vocal  chords  '  tied  up ' ; 
I  could  think  of  nothing  else.  I  therefore  reported  that  I  could  not  think  of 
anything  else  and  that  my  response  was  but  a  completion  of  'nerve'  into 
'nervous'.  (This  is  the  fashion  by  which  I  always  anticipate  what  a  person 
is  going  to  say  next  when  I  am  listening  to  a  lecturer  or  when  I  am  taking 
part  in  a  conversation.  I  anticipate  the  speaker's  words  in  terms  of  color, 
with  no  clear  consciousness  of  any  vocal-motor  imagery  at  all.)" 

n.  Summari)  of  introspective  data  on  free  association. 

Observer  A.  The  perception  of  the  stimulus  word  invariably 
involves  a  stereotyped  visual  associate  whose  color  or  brightness  is 
determined  by  the  dominant  sound  of  the  stimulus  word  itself. 
This  observer  never  focally  ''hears"  the  experimenter's  voice  nor 
is  he  focally  conscious  of  auditory  qualities  in  his  own  verbal  imag- 
ery of  the  stimulus  word.     The  latter  imagery  demands  a  similar 

[82] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

visual  associate  before  it  is  complete.  After  the  original  visual 
associate  appears  in  consciousness  A's  attention  is  directed  to  its 
behavior.  If  the  image  develops  into  no  further  processes  either 
verbal  or  visual  but  begins  to  fade  away  or  drift  off  to  one  corner 
of  his  visual  field,  trains  of  association  are  momentarily  halted  and 
A  finds  his  attention  claimed  either  by  visual  entoptic  phenomena 
or  by  a  strained  condition  in  the  throat.  Under  these  conditions 
the  throat  strains  may  develop  into  an  Aufgahe  consciousness  and 
hence  to  a  recall  of  the  stimulus  word  in  vocal-motor  terms.  There- 
upon the  original  visual  synaesthetic  image  reappears.  Prom  here 
on  in  the  course  of  free  association  the  response  develops  invariably 
in  terms  of  visual  imagery.  Perhaps  the  original  synaesthetic 
image  may  change  its  shape  or  color ;  the  product  of  such  a  change 
in  the  visual  image  represents  a  response  word  which  the  reagent 
immediately  attempts  to  translate  into  verbal  imagery.  At  times 
this  translation  process  is  delayed  and  as  a  result  the  reagent  finds 
himself  trying  to  pronounce  a  word  which  he  cannot  say.  His  at- 
tention is  then  claimed  by  visualized  throat  strains.  The  response 
is  complete  when  the  reagent  has  succeeded  in  translating  the  final 
color  into  its  appropriate  verbal  image.  It  might  be  interpreted 
as  being  complete  so  far  as  the  reagent's  own  consciousness  is  con- 
cerned when  he  has  become  aware  of  the  meaning  of  this  final  color. 
Sometimes  a  verbal  image  identifies  the  color;  sometimes  an  ante- 
cedent visual  or  verbal  image  has  sufficed  to  give  enough  meaning 
to  the  final  color  to  cause  A  to  relax  as  if  the  response  were  com- 
plete; and  sometimes  the  reaction  terminates  in  a  motor  response 
which  means  familiarity  so  far  as  the  reagent  himself  is  concerned. 
Peculiar  response  words  result  from  the  functioning  of  his  syn- 
aesthetic images.  "Three"  was  his  response  to  "become,"  a  totally 
irrelevant  reaction  from  the  point  of  view  of  an  asjniaesthetic 
person;  but  the  "three"  was  suggested  by  the  shape  and  color  of 
the  original  synaesthetic  image  which  accompanied  the  auditory 
perception  of  "become."  The  "be"  sound  of  "become"  has  the 
same  color  as  the  "ee"  sound  in  "three."  Again,  "brown"  was 
his  response  to  "after."  This  was  determined  by  the  calf-brown 
color  which  was  aroused  by  the  stinuilus  word. 

Observer  B.  B's  procedure  in  forming  free  associations  is  en- 
tirely different,  as  far  as  its  content  is  concerned.  He  is  first 
focally  aware  of  the  stimulus  word ;  the  quality  of  the  experiment- 

[83] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

er's  voice  or  the  articulation  of  the  word  momentarily  stands  out 
with  marked  clearness.  Then  he  has  auditory-vocal-motor  imagery 
of  his  own  voice  repeating  the  stimulus  word  or  he  is  aware  of 
auditory  imagery  of  the  experimenter's  voice.  Then  there  may 
occur  a  brief  pause  during  which  time  B's  attention  shifts  to  kin- 
aesthetic  or  tactual  processes  having  to  do  with  a  strained  throat 
condition  or  with  more  or  less  reflex  incipient  movements  about  the 
lips,  tongue  or  throat.  The  response  word  may  first  appear  in 
vocal-motor  imagery,  followed  by  innervation,  or  it  may  appear  at 
once  as  an  innervated  vocalization.  It  is  always  suggested  by  some 
tactual  or  kinaesthetic  antecedent  process,  such  as  a  peculiar  ten- 
dency to  assume  a  mouth-position  as  if  to  blow,  or  such  as  a  series 
of  vocal-motor  imagery  having  to  do  with  memories  of  a  lecture  in 
philosophy.  The  mental  processes  in  B's  case  are  thus  confined  to 
kinaesthetic,  auditory,  tactual  and  perhaps  organic  sensations  and 
images. 

in.  Free  association  in  A  and  B  compared. 

1.  In  the  perception  of  the  stimulus  word  B's  attention  is  fo- 
cused upon  the  auditory  qualities  of  the  spoken  word.  A's  atten- 
tion ignores  the  auditory  qualities  and  shifts  at  once  to  a  stereo- 
typed visual  concomitant. 

2.  In  B's  consciousness  the  auditory  perception  is  followed  by 
auditory  or  by  vocal -motor  imagery.  In  A's  consciousness  the 
visual  associate  of  the  auditory  perception  persists  as  a  substitute 
for  auditory  or  vocal-motor  imagery. 

3.  B's  attention  is  then  directed  implicitly  toward  the  act  of 
finding  a  response  word ;  this  act  involves  such  processes  as  kinaes- 
thetic sensations,  verbal  or  auditory  imagery  or  tactual  imagery. 
A's  attention  is  implicitly  directed  in  similar  fashion  but  the  con- 
tents of  consciousness  remain  dominantly  visual  and  visually  syn- 
aesthetic  in  their  nature.  While  B's  attention  is  shifting  among 
kinaesthetic,  auditory,  and  perhaps  tactual  processes,  A's  attention 
is  shifting  among  changes  in  his  visual  synaesthetic  imagery — from 
the  original  synaesthetic  accompaniment  of  the  auditory  perception 
to  a  detached  visual  associate,  representing  an  additional  non-visual 
process. 

4.  The  final  cues  for  B's  responses  are  kinaesthetic,  tactual  or 
auditory.    A's  response  is  a  persistence  of  a  visual  image  which 

[84] 


The  SyrKiesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

stands  for  an  auditory,  vocal-motor,  or  kinaesthetic  process.  At 
times  vocal-motor  imagery  supplements  the  visual  but  the  former 
is  not  attended-to  focally. 

5.  Thus  in  free  associations  the  functioning  of  mental  processes 
is  the  same  in  both  reagents,  i.  e.,  both  reagents  are  behaving  in 
essentially  the  same  fashion;  but  the  mental  contents  differ  radi- 
cally in  our  two  observers, 

iv.  The  significance  of  synaesthetic  phenomena  in  A's  free  associ- 
ations. 
A  mass  of  introspective  data  on  A's  free  associations  brings 
out  more  clearly  than  in  our  previous  series  of  experiments  just 
how  synaesthetic  phenomena  function  in  the  development  of  mean- 
ing. We  have  seen  that  a  stereotyped  visual  associate  is  involved 
in  his  perception  of  the  stimulus  word.  If  this  visual  image  does 
not  at  once  lead  to  further  visual  imagery  or  to  some  subsequent 
verbal  process  A  fails  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  stimulus 
word.  Such  a  subsequent  process  may  consist  of  a  tendency  to 
vocalize  the  word  in  which  case  the  original  synaesthetic  image  is 
definitized,  clarified,  or  modified  so  that  it  at  once  leads  to  a  further 
process.  Meaning  is  thus  found  in  the  process-aspect  of  experience 
and  not  in  the  content-aspect.  For  example,  if  in  A's  case  a  visual 
associate  of  the  stimulus  word  fails  to  lead  to  some  other  visual 
image  or  to  some  other  process,  no  meaning  develops;  but  if  the 
visual  image  leads  or  shifts  to  some  other  visual  image  or  to  some 
other  subsequent  process  the  experience  has  meaning.  Mental 
contents  are  therefore  only  the  tools,  the  mode  or  the  method  by 
which  meaningful  processes  take  place;  the  activity  or  process- 
aspect — the  behavior  of  these  contents — is  the  criterion  of  meaning. 
It  is  certain  also  that  a  combination  or  mosaic  of  contents  must 
be  in  action  before  meaning  can  develop ;  such  a  group,  of  itself, 
does  not  provide  meaning.  For  example,  a  complex  visual  synaes- 
thetic image  may  appear  in  A's  consciousness;  such  an  image  may 
virtually  be  a  group  of  contents  for  the  reason  that  in  it  are  in- 
volved shape,  various  hues,  size  and  what  not.  But  if  such  a  com- 
plex fails  to  change  in  some  way,  to  shift,  or  to  lead  to  something 
further  in  consciousness,  the  experience  is  meaningless.  Detache<i 
mental  contents  are  thus  devoid  of  meaning.  Ordinarily  such 
colors  mean  something  to  our  observer;  they  mean  an  object,  a 

[85] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject  ? 

word,  a  letter;  they  constitute  an  idea  or  what  not.  But  they  so 
constitute  a  meaningful  experience  only  when  they  appear  in  a 
succession  of  flowing,  changing  mental  contents.  To  illustrate:  A 
once  reported  in  the  above  experiments  visual  imagery  of  a  small 
patch,  dark  steel  grey  on  one  side,  shading  into  brilliant  white  on 
the  other.  This  image  partly  disappeared,  leaving  behind  it  an 
isolated  patch  of  white.  Up  to  this  time  the  synaesthetic  image 
had  meant  the  stimulus  word  "honest"  for  the  reason  that  it  had 
developed  in  succession  with  an  auditory  perception  of  the  stimu- 
lus word  and  with  a  non-focal  verbal  image.  But  as  long  as  this 
white  patch  lingered  alone  in  consciousness  without  changing,  i.  e., 
without  leading  to  some  further  process,  it  continued  to  possess 
no  meaning.  On  the  other  hand  no  visual  synaesthetic  image  which 
happens  to  lead  to  some  further  process  is  devoid  of  meaning. 

The  reader  has  undoubtedly  asked  himself  how  it  is  possible 
that  mere  colors  and  brightnesses  can  mean  so  many  things  in  Ah 
mental  life.  If  meaning  consists  of  the  behavior  of  mental  con- 
tents, A' 8  case  is  readily  explained.  In  no  sense  modality  are 
there  so  manj^  different  qualities  as  in  the  visual;  in  no  sense  mo- 
dality can  shifts  from  one  quality  to  another,  from  one  shape,  form 
or  size  to  another  take  place  so  rapidly  or  so  easily  as  in  the  visual. 
Moreover,  in  no  sense  field  is  it  possible  to  have  as  many  different 
qualities  simultaneously  present  to  consciousness  and  thus  simul- 
taneously leading  to  further  processes  as  in  the  field  of  vision. 
Thus  we  might  expect  that  visual  imagery  may  function  most  ade- 
quately of  all  the  modalities  as  contents  which  provide  meaning 
when  they  change  or  shift.  The  asynaesthetic  person  would 
find  it  either  impossible  or  very  difficult  to  cultivate  his  visual 
imagery  to  the  extent  that  it  will  function  as  adequately  as  A's  in 
this  respect  for  the  reason  that  such  extended  voluntary  control  of 
visual  imagery  as  is  possessed  by  A  comes  only  with  sjTiaesthetic 
functions.  A  cannot  help  but  employ  visual  imagery  constantly  in 
the  development  of  meaning  for  the  reason  that  this  imagery  is 
constantly  present  in  his  consciousness. 

Our  results  on  A's  free  associations  also  reveal  added  evidence 
that  the  functional  significance  of  synaesthesis  extends  beyond  the 
realm  of  perceiving.  Here  not  only  does  the  visual  concomitant 
of  the  stimulus  word  "convey"  the  meaning  of  the  word  itself, 
thus  leading  to  further  associations,  but  verbal  recalls  of  the  stimu- 

[86] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

lus  word  usher  back  into  consciousness  this  same  visual  concomi- 
tant; the  success  of  the  final  response  depends  upon  the  behavior 
of  this  visual  concomitant ;  subsequent  verbal  images  of  other  words 
invariably  possess  their  own  visual  associates ;  and  finally,  detached 
visual  associates  appear  in  response  to  or  are  suggested  by  ante- 
cedent synaesthetic  images  and  they  frequently  appear  minus  their 
verbal  counterparts;  such  detached  visual  associates  which  stand 
for  response  words  function  quite  as  well  in  the  response  itself  as 
any  verbal  or  kinaesthetic  tendency  in  the  asynaesthetic  indi- 
vidual might  function.  For  example,  A  at  times  finds  himself 
relaxing,  as  if  the  response  were  over,  when  a  final  detached  visual 
associate  appears  in  consciousness  as  a  substitute  for  a  vocal-motor 
image.  Subsequent  throat  tensions  on  A's  part  simply  mean  that 
he  has  not  translated  this  detached  visual  associate  into  its  corre- 
sponding verbal  image  for  the  experimenter's  benefit.  Further 
evidence  that  synaesthetic  images  are  just  as  important  in  the 
realm  of  thinking  as  they  are  in  the  realm  of  perceiving  might  be 
given  at  length. 

More  striking  than  these  facts,  however,  is  the  effect  which  these 
visual  processes  exert  upon  A's  own  interpretations  of  his  experi- 
encse  immediately  after  they  have  taken  place.  Not  infreciuently, 
when  A  had  recalled  a  detached  visual  associate  of  the  stimulus 
word,  did  it  seem  to  him  that  he  were  recalling  auditory  imagery 
of  the  experimenter's  voice,  although  no  auditory  qualities  as  such 
were  present  to  consciousness.  So  intimately  bound  up  with  sounds 
are  colors  in  A's  mental  life  that  they  are  actually  interpreted  to 
be  sounds.  The  same  is  true  of  pressure  and  other  sensory  experi- 
ences. But  all  of  this  may  take  place  in  the  absence  of  peripheral 
stimulation.  One  can  hardly  ask  for  more  definite  evidence  that 
synaesthetic  phenomena  should  be  regarded  as  true  synaesthesis. 


V.  A  Thkory  of  Synaesthksia 

The  whole  problem  of  synaesthesia  needs  working  over  in  the 
light  of  more  detailed  and  exhaustive  laboratory  experimentation. 
Too  often  has  it  been  regarded  an  anomaly  which  aroused  in- 
terest only  from  the  point  of  view  of  curiosity.     We  have  pointed 

[87] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

out  that  introspective  descriptions  of  such  phenomena  have  been 
lacking  in  the  literature ;  that  no  investigator  has  demonstrated  that 
synaesthesis  is  confined,  in  any  one  case,  to  the  field  of  perception; 
and  that  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  contributions  to  the 
problem  have  mentioned  the  existence  of  extra-perceptual  forms. 
Moreover,  it  is  more  or  less  remarkable  that  so  few  investigators 
have  observed  the  apparent  connection  between  synaesthesis  and 
the  general  problem  of  meaning. 

From  a  detailed  study  of  only  one  case  it  will  be  impossible  for 
lis  to  derive  conclusions  which  claim  general  validity.  Neither 
will  it  be  possible  to  confirm  or  destructively  criticize  much  of  the 
work  which  has  already  been  done  on  synaesthesia.  Our  results 
have  been  obtained  and  have  been  interpreted  solely  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  value  or  function  of  synaesthetic  processes  in  the 
consciousness  of  our  subject  who  possesses  it.  Nevertheless  we  feel 
justified  in  discussing  certain  alleged  facts  and  certain  theories 
which  have  appeared  in  the  literature  inasmuch  as  one  case,  ttior- 
oughly  studied,  ought  certainly  to  prove  suggestive. 

As  early  as  1864  Chabalier  (3)  very  nearly  reached  the  core  of 
the  functional  problem  when  he  noted  that  letters  were  meaning- 
less without  their  colored  associates.  One  of  the  Nussbaumer  cases 
of  1873  (8)  throws  some  light  upon  the  problem.  It  was  noticed 
that  isolated  tones  were  always  colored  for  the  same  individual, 
while  musical  concerts  were  not.  This  fact  points  to  a  cognitive 
theory  of  synaesthesis  rather  than  to  a  physiological  theory  as 
such.  For  if  synaesthesis  is  due  to  changes  in  blood  supply  in  the 
brain — to  the  physiological  disturbances  underlying  emotional 
states  of  mind — one  would  certainly  expect  that  if  colors  were  to 
appear  in  the  one  situation  (isolated  tones)  and  not  in  the  other 
(listening  to  a  concert)  the  concert  would  produce  the  colors.  Any 
physiological  view  such  as  that  of  anastomosis  of  fibers  or  a  lack  of 
differentiation  of  function  in  adjacent  brain  areas  would  lead  to 
an  inevitable  "seeing"  of  colors  when  tones  were  heard.  If  such 
theories  were  true  one  would  hardly  expect  that  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual synaesthetic  processes  would  appear  one  moment  and  not 
the  next.  But  if  sjTiaesthesis  is  a  cognitive  process  and  purely 
functional  in  nature,  rather  than  a  phenomenon  based  upon  struc- 
tural-organic brain  conditions,  i.  e.,  if  it  is  definitely  a  problem  of 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

meaning,  then  we  can  understand  how  a  person  could  experience 
colored  tones  without  colored  concerts.  Combinations  of  tones, 
successions  of  tones  and  harmony  possess  different  meanings  from 
isolated  tones.  Thus  while  perceptions  of  isolated  tones  might,  in 
a  certain  individual,  require  synaesthetic  imagery,  the  understand- 
ing of  a  concert — an  entirely  different  cognitive  process — might  not 
of  necessity  involve  colored  hearing.  In  a  succession  of  tones  a 
subsequent  tone  may  interpret  its  antecedent  while  an  isolated  tone 
has  no  such  subsequent  tone  upon  which  its  meaning  can  be  based. 

In  1887  Steinbriigge  (91)  hinted  at  the  evident  nature  of  syn- 
aesthesis  when  he  suggested  that  it  was  a  "double-perception,"  or 
a  primary  perception  accompanied  by  a  "sub-perception."  But 
he  concluded  that  the  visual  synaesthetic  image  appeared  too  rap- 
idly upon  the  sound  stimulus  to  allow  for  the  forming  of  an  associ- 
ation between  a  sound  and  a  visual  image.  Therefore  he  resorted 
to  a  purely  physiological  theory.  In  1913  (2)  Bleuler  criticized 
the  association  theories  of  synaesthesis  on  the  ground  that  colors 
may  be  connected  with  sounds  in  colored  hearing  as  early  in  child- 
hood as  to  precede  the  development  of  meaning.  While  no  one 
knows  exactly  when  meaning  develops  in  the  life  of  a  child  the 
assumption  does  not  seem  wild  that  imagery  and  meaning  develop 
hand  in  hand.  We  know  that  synaesthesia  has  come  to  function  as 
meaning  in  the  mental  life  of  our  reagent;  we  know  that  it  func- 
tioned as  meaning  as  far  back  as  he  can  remember.  As  long  as 
synaesthesis  persists  we  should  expect  it  to  function  as  a  process 
of  meaning;  when  synaesthesis  disappears  as  it  is  said  to  do  in 
certain  eases,  the  particular  meaning  constituted  by  the  synaesthetic 
process  has  likewise  disappeared.  Meanings  are  absolute  whether 
they  be  specific  or  general.  Meanings  disappear  with  process- 
functions;  new  process-functions  provide  new  but  perhaps  similar 
meanings. 

The  observed  pcrinanence  of  synaesthesis  (see  Holden,  4,  Jor- 
dan, 5,  and  Wheeler,  11)  points  to  permanence  of  meaning.  For 
example  a  certain  child  might  come  to  have  a  visual  image  of  blue 
with  the  letter  "e";  as  long  as  this  synaesthetic  image  persisted 
in  the  individual's  mental  life  this  same  blue  would  always  mean 
"e";  but  if  the  blue  should  disappear  in  connection  with  the  "e", 
some  other  processes  would  take  the  place  of  the  visual  synaesthetic 

[89  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

image  such  as  auditory,  vocal-motor  or  some  other,  and  asynaes- 
thetic  visual  image. 

The  stereotyped  nature  of  the  synaesthetic  image  offers  no  par- 
ticular difficulty  when  interpreted  as  a  meaning-phenomenon. 
Meanings  are  always  stereotyped.  This  absolute  nature  of  meaning 
provides  validity  to  knowledge  itself.  But  it  is  the  manner  of 
functioning  of  mental  contents,  rather  than  specific  mental  struc- 
tures as  such,  which  gives  to  meaning  its  absolute  character.  Thus 
if  synaesthesis  is  a  meaning-function  we  should  here  expect  to 
find  stereotyped  meaning  as  well  as  structure  and  this  is  what  we 
actually  do  find.  The  important  issue,  then,  is  not  concerned  with 
the  fixed  structure  of  the  synaesthetic  image  but  it  is  concerned 
with  the  manner  in  which  one  particular  image  rather  than  another 
happened  to  develop  as  the  partner  to  the  primary  process  in  the 
growth  of  meaning.  The  problem  in  colored  hearing  is  then :  Why 
does  a  certain  blue  or  yellow  rather  than  an  auditory  or  a  vocal- 
motor  image  come  to  identify  the  sound  of  a  tuning-fork;  or  why 
does  the  shift  of  attention  from  non-focal  auditory  qualities  to  a 
visualized  color  function  as  meaning  rather  than  a  shift  from  audi- 
tory qualities  to  other  visual  or  to  vocal-motor  tendencies?  In 
either  case  the  shift  of  attention — the  functional  aspect — is  the 
stereotyped  factor  and  the  problem  lies  in  explaining  why  one  sub- 
sequent process  rather  than  another  came  to  be  selected  as  the 
identifier  of  the  tuning-fork  sound. 

Hence  our  notion  as  to  a  plausible  theory  of  synaesthesis  has 
changed  as  a  result  of  our  present  investigation.  We  do  not  argue 
that  meaning  is  a  cause  of  synaesthesis  or  that  synaesthesis  is  a 
cause  of  meaning;  nor  will  we  admit  that  the  two  are  accompani- 
ments of  one  another  for  reasons  which  we  will  discuss  later.  We 
hold  that  synaesthesis  is  meaning;  that  it  is  a  process  of  meaning. 
Thus  we  can  no  longer  accept  a  theory  of  anastomosis  or  of  entan- 
glement of  fibers  for  the  reason,  first,  that  such  a  brain  condition 
would  lead  to  a  permanency  of  synaesthesis.  Some  forms  of  syn- 
aesthesis are  not  permanent.  If  fibers  became  entangled  or  anas- 
tomosed during  growth  we  should  expect  them  to  always  remain 
in  that  condition.  Secondly,  this  view  can  hardly  describe  the 
situation  with  respect  to  synaesthetic  phenomena  in  the  higher  in- 
tellectual processes  where  every  other  modality  is  paired  with  a 
visual  image,  and  where  association  is  reversible.     Neither  would 

[90] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

it  explain  how  colored  tones  can  exist  without  colored  concerts. 
Thirdly,  it  presumes  that  synaesthesis  is  only  a  perceptual  process, 
taking  place  with  peripheral  stimulation.  And  such,  we  have 
found,  is  not  the  case. 

Furthermore  we  have  been  obliged  to  discard  lack  of  differenti- 
ation of  function  as  a  possible  theory.  If  brain  areas  are  lacking 
in  differentiation  of  function,  thus  causing  a  confusion  between 
audition  and  vision,  or  causing  a  dual  response  from  a  single  stimu- 
lus, we  would  have  to  conclude  that  in  certain  cases  every  localized 
sensory  area  except  the  visual  lacked  differentiation — a  highly  im- 
probable state  of  affairs.  Moreover,  this  view  would  lead  every 
isolated  tone  and  combination  of  tones  to  appear  colored  in  colored 
hearing.  This  is  not  always  the  case.  Again,  since  every  attribute 
of  a  sound  sensation  or  an  auditory  image,  in  our  subject  at  least, 
has  its  concomitant  in  an  attribute  of  the  visual  associate  and 
determines  this  corresponding  attribute  in  the  visual  associate, 
there  must  be  as  great  a  differentiation  of  function  in  the  auditory 
as  in  the  visual  center  of  the  brain,  otherwise  these  detailed  causal 
relations  between  the  auditory  and  the  visual  processes  could  not 
exist.  The  auditory  area,  lacking  differentiation,  could  not  operate 
in  causing  differentiated  functions  in  the  visual  area.  And  finally, 
neither  of  the  two  views  just  mentioned  gives  us  any  clue  as  to 
how  a  dissociated  or  detached  visual  synaesthetic  image  comes  to 
stand  for  or  mean  an  auditory  process.  In  fact  all  of  the  physio- 
logical theories  which  have  so  far  been  advanced  fail  to  take  into 
consideration  the  cognitive  functions  of  synaesthesis. 

The  facts  which  have  been  construed  as  pointing  to  a  physio- 
logical theory  are  as  follows:  (1)  the  simultjineity  of  primary  and 
secondary  process  in  synaesthesis;  (2)  the  close  proximity  of  brain 
areas  involved  in  synaesthesis;  (3)  the  stimulating  influence  of 
drugs;  (4)  the  irreversibility  of  (perceptual)  synaesthesis;  (5)  the 
influence  of  fatigue;  (6)  the  disappearance  of  synaesthesis  during 
adolescence;  (7)  the  dependence  of  secondary  attributes  upon  pri- 
mary attributes;  (8)  the  early  appearance  of  synaesthesis  in  child- 
hood; (9)  the  suddenness  and  spontaneity  with  which  any  single 
instance  of  synaesthetic  association  arises.  These  arguments  are 
either  misleading,  or,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out,  their  truth 
is  open  to  very  serious  question.  Rather  than  pointing  to  a  physi- 
ological theory,  these  arguments  all  point  to  the  cognitive  nature 

[91] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

and  functioning  of  synaesthesis  and  to  theories  of  reflex  mechan- 
isms.    They  do  not  necessarily  point  to  organic  conditions. 

Meaning  involves  simultaneous  groupings  of  contents  and  pro- 
cess-functions. The  brain  areas  involved  in  synaesthesis  may  be 
as  far  apart  as  brain  anatomy  will  allow.  Meanings  are  influenced, 
just  as  synaesthesis  is  influenced,  by  drugs.  Meanings  change  dur- 
ing adolescence.  Meanings  are  determined  by  attributes  of  sensory 
experience  and  so  are  synaesthetic  images.  Meanings  obviously 
develop  with  the  growth  of  imagery  in  childhood.  Meanings  de- 
velop ''suddenly  and  spontaneously"  in  the  same  fashion  as  does 
synaesthesis.  Who  has  not  tried  to  comprehend  the  meaning  of 
something  and  has  not  found  that  meaning  "dawning"  upon  him 
suddenly  and  with  evident  spontaneity  ? 

The  "  meaning  "-interpretation  of  synaesthesis  allows  for  per- 
fect harmony  between  the  facts  which  were  alleged  to  have  sup- 
ported a  physiological  view  and  the  facts  which  have  been  advanced 
in  support  of  an  association  theory.  (See  11,  page  38,  for  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  an  association  theory.)  Otherwise  we  cannot 
harmonize  the  two  sets  of  facts  without  positing  two  radically 
different  species  of  synaesthesis,  an  assumption  entirely  unwar- 
ranted by  the  facts.  If  one  reviews  the  facts  concerning  synaes- 
thesis he  finds  everything  in  favor  of  the  phenomenon  as  a  meaning- 
function  and  nothing  against  it.  Such  facts  in  part  are :  the  vari- 
ability in  localization  of  the  secondary  process;  the  intensifying 
effect  of  emotional  experiences;  the  fact  that  no  two  people  have 
the  same  association  in  synaesthesis  except  as  a  matter  of  coinci- 
dence ;  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  visual  perceptions  arouse  synaes- 
thetic visual  imagery,  and  the  like.  In  addition  to  these  facts  we 
are  confronted  by  the  following  results  from  this  investigation: 

(1)  meaning  is  lacking  in  the  absence  of  the  synaesthetic  image; 

(2)  the  synaesthetic  image  invariably  identifies  the  primary  process 
in  every  particular  and  in  general  as  well;  (3)  wherever  several 
primary  processes  have  the  same  meaning  they  are  identified  by 
the  same,  single  secondary  process  (for  example,  a  flute  tone  is 
yellow,  auditory  imagery  of  that  flute  tone  is  yellow,  the  word 
"flute"  suggests  the  same  yellow,  etc.)  ;  (4)  the  secondary  process 
functions  for  familiarity;  (5)  the  synaesthetic  image  may  control 
the  direction  of  the  reagent's  trend  of  thought;  (6)  the  behavior 
of  attention  in  perceiving  and  in  recognizing  is  the  same  in  our 

[92] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

synaesthetic  reagent  as  it  is  in  the  check  reagent  wherever  mean- 
ing develops;  (7)  the  synaesthetic  image  functions  in  an  Aufgabe 
consciousness  as  do  other  meaningful  processes;  (8)  under  condi- 
tions which  do  not  allow  for  the  development  of  meaning,  synaes- 
thetic images  are  meaningless;  (9)  synaesthetic  phenomena  func- 
tion in  the  development  of  meaning  as  marginal  or  "background" 
processes  of  consciousness  in  the  same  fashion  as  does  a  kinaesthetic 
background  in  the  asj-naesthetic  reagent;  (10)  syuaesthesis  is 
reversible  wherever  meaning  is  reversible  and  is  irreversible  where 
meaning  is  irreversible;  (11)  sj'naesthetic  processes  function  in  the 
foreshortening  of  meaning  contexts. 

We  believe,  therefore,  that  our  past  notion  of  syuaesthesis  must 
be  changed.  We  must  resort  to  explanations  which  will  do  justice 
to  these  facts  as  the  most  important  features  of  the  phenomenon 
in  question.  And  to  do  this  we  must  resort  to  functional  reflex 
mechanisms  rather  than  to  organic  brain  conditions. 

The  first  hint  as  to  a  possible  reflex  theory  of  syuaesthesis  may 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  syuaesthesis  is  not  an  absolute  simultane- 
ous process  as  it  is  so  often  thought  to  be.  Simultaneity  comes 
about  after  both  processes  have  appeared,  in  that  they  persist  to- 
gether, but  in  their  behavior  is  to  be  found  evidence  that  a  stimulus- 
response  function  is  operating.  The  primary  process  may  function 
either  as  a  stimulus  or  as  a  response,  usually  the  former.  The  sec- 
ondary process  may  have  both  functions  under  different  conditions 
but  usually  the  function  of  response,  unless  it  is  detached.  In  all 
instances  the  function  of  the  given  process  depends  upon  the  situ- 
ation in  which  it  takes  place.  In  case  of  perceptual  syuaesthesis 
the  primary  process  is  usually  the  stimulus  and  the  visual  as.sociate 
is  the  response.  In  imaginal  syuaesthesis  the  stimulus  function  of 
the  visual  image  depends  upon  the  mental  activity  which  has  pre- 
ceded and  upon  the  nature  of  the  implied  or  explicit  Aufgabe  at 
the  time.  In  all  instances  syuaesthesis  involves  a  shifting  of  at- 
tention (1)  from  primary  to  secondary  process;  (2)  a  momentary 
shift  from  secondary  to  primary  and  back  to  secondary  again ;  or 
(3)  repeated  shifts  from  one  half  of  the  complex  to  the  other, 
always  ending  with  the  visual  associate.  In  no  instance  are  both 
the  secondary  and  the  primary  processes  attended-to  focally;  the 
primary  process  always  seems  to  be  a  "step  behind"  attention. 
In  other  words,  everywhere  in  the  syuaesthesis  of  our  subject  we 

[93] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

found  a  stereotyped  behavior  of  attention,  namely,  an  inevitable 
tendency  to  shift  away  from  primary  process  to  secondary  process, 
the  only  exceptions  being  a  momentary  shift  in  the  reverse  direction 
when  the  secondary  process  functioned  as  a  stimulus.  Such  a 
stereotyped  behavior  of  attention  suggests  that  in  essence  the  pro- 
cess is  a  reflex  phenomenon.  And  because  of  the  fact  that  the 
associated  contents  in  synaesthesis  do  not  appear  associated  in  like 
fashion  in  asynaesthetic  individuals  we  have  called  this  reflex 
phenomenon  a  form  of  conditioned  reflex.  The  inevitable  shift  or 
determination  of  attention  toward  visual  qualities  and  away  from 
non-visual  qualities  suggests  that  a  mechanism  of  irradiation  is  at 
bottom  responsible.  Once  a  visual  synaesthetic  image  has  become 
detached  from  its  parent  process  we  have  the  phenomenon  of  dis- 
integration or  dissociation.  When  this  dissociated  image  appears 
alone  in  consciousness  but  is  clarified  or  rendered  more  stable  by 
the  advent  of  the  primary  process  we  have  the  phenomenon  of 
facilitation.  Stimulus  and  response  functions  are  interchangeable. 
A  certain  muscular  contraction  in  walking  for  example  is  at  once 
a  response  to  an  antecedent  contraction  and  a  stimulus  for  a  sub- 
sequent contraction.  The  visual  synaesthetic  image  may  likewise 
function  in  either  respect.  We  are  unable,  however,  to  offer  any 
reason  why  a  certain  color  rather  than  another  originally  came  to 
be  associated  with  a  given  tone  or  other  non-visual  experience. 
One  would  have  to  know  the  original  circumstances  in  detail  to 
make  such  a  suggestion.  Perhaps  one  might  assume  that  any  given 
association  between  sight  and  sound  or  sight  and  touch  was  due  to 
local  functional  brain  conditions  such  as  differentials  in  potential 
energy  in  different  neuron  patterns  or  to  synaptic  resistance  and 
the  like. 

We  liken  synaesthetic  processes  to  conditioned  reflexes  in  that 
the  associations  in  the  former  are  evidently  conditioned.  For  ex- 
ample a  particular  shade  of  blue  comes  to  function  as  a  response 
to  the  sound  of  a  tuning-fork  rather  than  as  a  response  to  a  normal 
stimulus.  We  presume  such  a  normal  stimulus  to  be  the  word 
"blue",  an  Aufgahe  process  to  recall  a  visual  image  of  blue  or  the 
name  of  some  blue  object.  The  conditioned  feature  of  the  reflex 
is  its  artificial  or  arbitrary  nature.  Like  the  conditioned  salivary 
reflex  it  is  based  upon  the  reflex  mechanism  of  irradiation,  presum- 
ably; but  in  synaesthesis  we  have  a  widespread  tendency  toward 

[94] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

such  irradiation.  The  visual  center  in  our  reagent  might  be  more 
closely  related  functionally  to  the  motor  projection  areas  than  in 
normal  reagents.  Hence  any  stimulus  tending  to  produce  a  re- 
sponse leads  toward  the  motor  projection  areas  by  way  of  the  visual 
area. 

If  such  a  hypothesis  is  true  it  would  mean  that  in  observer  A 
the  phj'siological  processes  subserving  conscious  activities  would 
be  somewhat  as  follows :  Assuming  at  the  outset  that  motor  pro- 
jection areas  are  quite  as  important  for  consciousness  as  are  the 
so-called  "sen.sory"  areas,  nerve  impulses  in  A's  case  are  drained 
from  the  various  sensory  areas  toward  the  motor  projection  areas 
through  the  visual  area.  The  latter  evidently  possesses  a  closer 
functional  relation  with  the  motor  projection  areas  than  do  the 
other  sensory  regions.  While  this  view  may  apparently  a.ssume 
that  brain  regions  account  for  sensory  specificity,  there  seems  to 
be  no  reason  why  such  an  implication  is  not  safe.  Thus  a  tone  is 
"seen"  and  not  "heard"  as  far  as  meaning  is  concerned  because, 
in  the  arousal  of  a  definitized  conscious  process  the  visual  area 
functions  as  the  region  of  integration  rather  than  the  auditory. 
But  we  must  assume,  however,  that  since  the  sound  which  is  "seen" 
is  of  auditory  origin,  the  auditory  region  is  as  differentiated  in 
function  as  is  the  visual,  and,  prior  to  the  arousal  of  the  visual 
concomitants,  functions  to  determine  in  detail  the  behavior  of  the 
visual  contents.  The  fact  that  no  auditory  qualities  are  "heard" 
directly  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  auditor^-  area  lacks 
differentiation.  Rather  it  means  that  the  lack  of  "hearing"  as 
such  is  functional  and  not  organic. 

Thus  with  all  other  sensory  modalities  it  may  be  that  the  visual 
region  places  its  final  "stamp"  upon  the  content  of  the  resulting 
conscious  process. 

This  view  is  suggested  further  by  the  fact  that  kinaesthetic 
imagery  followed  by  incipient  movement  does  not  neces.sarily  in- 
volve a  visual  process  until  a  very  high  degree  of  definiteness  is 
attained.  It  is  consistent  with  the  logical  necessity  of  regarding 
sensory  and  motor  impulses  as  e(iually  responsible  for  coiLsciousness 
and  with  the  view  that  consciousness  is  akin  to  "motor"  adjust- 
ment or  possibly  an  incipient  stage  of  "motor"  adjustment. 

To  call  synaesthesis  a  conditioned  reflex  does  not  explain  the 
phenomenon.     It  merely  gives  it  a  functional  name,  or  label,  which 

[95] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

perhaps  leads  us  to  an  appropriate  description  of  synaesthesis.  It 
will  not  tell  us  how  the  color  was  substituted  for  the  normal  stimu- 
lus. We  draw  upon  the  notion  of  irradiation  in  attempting  to 
solve  the  latter  problem.  "We  cling  to  the  notion  of  the  conditioned 
reflex  nature  of  synaesthesis  because  it  provides  for  its  great  vari- 
ability from  individual  to  individual  and  for  its  stereotyped  fea- 
tures; and  opens  a  way  to  envisage  more  clearly  its  meaning-func- 
tion. 

After  all,  as  to  just  what  content  shall  function  in  a  meaning 
process  is  an  arbitrary  and  artificial  matter  as  far  as  the  content 
itself  is  concerned.  The  content  is  only  a  means  to  an  end  in  that 
it  is  the  method  or  mode  by  which  the  function  takes  place.  The 
contents  are  conditioned  and  have  no  inherent  worth  as  peculiar 
or  unique  meaning  carriers.  For  example,  most  any  sort  of  process 
from  a  visual  perception  to  a  vocal-motor  image  may  mean  a  con- 
sciousness of  a  task.  The  contents  concerned  in  the  development 
and  functioning  of  meaning  are  conditioned  as  much  as  the  flow 
of  saliva  in  response  to  a  tuning  fork.  As  long  as  the  dog 's  mouth 
watered  in  response  to  a  tuning  fork  in  Pavlov's  experiments  the 
"tuning-fork-saliva"  situation  meant  ''meat."  "We  do  not  intend 
to  argue  in  a  circle  and  to  imply  that  meaning  is  a  conditioned 
reflex  because  a  conditioned  reflex  is  a  certain  form  of  arbitrary 
meaning.  "We  are  arguing  that  the  two  phenomena  are  function- 
ally identical. 

That  meaning  is  a  reflex  phenomenon  is  substantiated  on  the 
ground  that  the  former  must  be  a  process.  One  mental  content 
must  lead  to  another  before  meaning  is  present.  This  shift,  this 
action,  this  stimulus-response  function  is  meaning.  Factors  exter- 
nal to  the  contents  determine  or  condition  just  what  the  contents 
shall  be  in  any  given  instance.  After  meaning  has  once  developed 
it  is  the  inevitable  shift  from  one  content  to  another  which  is  the 
meaning  fiinally,  rather  than  the  contents  themselves.  We  can  see 
no  danger  in  regarding  meaning  as  a  conditioned  reflex! 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  in  passing,  that  Lowie  (6)  has  drawn 
a  parallel  between  synaesthesis  and  peculiar  associations  which 
evolve  especially  among  primitive  races.  For  example  the  Dakota 
Indians  associated  "lozenge"  with  whirlwind;  for  certain  plain's 
tribes  black  meant  victory  or  joy ;  the  Cherokees  associated  "white" 
with  "south,"  "red"  with  "east,"  "black"  with  "west,"  and 

[96] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

*'blue"  with  ''north";  certain  figures  represented  good  fortune 
or  prosperity.  Primitive  man  had  preferential  estimates  of  cer- 
tain numbers.  Wells  (10)  sees  a  possible  similarity  of  function 
between  symbolism,  including  autistic  thinking,  and  synaesthesis. 
These  are  noteworthy  recognitions  of  the  significance  of  synaes- 
thesis as  a  process  of  meaning. 

Mudge  has  recently  made  a  brief  study  of  the  types  and  qual- 
ities of  visual  imagery  which  asynaesthetic  subjects  as.sociate 
with  musical  productions  (7).  The  author  apparently  assumes, 
and  we  believe  correctly  so,  that  there  is  no  sharp  dividing  line 
between  synaesthesia  proper  and  tendencies  to  associate  visual 
imagery  with  focalized  auditory  qualities.  But,  as  our  present 
investigation  shows,  the  synaesthesia  which  Mudge  characterizes 
as  exaggerated  differs  from  the  tendency  to  associate  visual  imagery 
with  focalized  auditory  qualities  in  that  in  the  former  the  visual 
associates  are  necessary  in  perceiving  in  auditory  fashion.  We  do 
not  doubt,  however,  but  that  such  visual  associates  as  Mudge  has 
described  assist  in  the  development  of  meaning,  although  the  in- 
vestigation does  not  mention  the  problem  of  meaning.  It  would 
be  practical  and  more  appropriate  to  confine  the  term  synaesthesia 
to  such  acts  of  perceiving  or  of  comprehending  in  which  the  pri- 
mary process  remains  non-focal. 

VI.  Summary 

1.  Our  blind  synaesthetic  reagent  posses.ses  an  entoptic  phenom- 
enon which  is  apparently  due  to  inherent  retinal  light.  By  means 
of  this  phenomenon  his  synaesthetic  colors  have  apparently  been 
kept  "alive."  His  entoptic  colors  are  clearly  distinguishable  from 
his  sjTiaesthetic  colors.  The  former  are  sensations  and  the  latter 
are  images. 

2.  A's  synaesthetic  imagery  differs  from  his  asynaesthetic 
imagery  as  follows:  (1)  It  can  be  held  before  consciousness  in- 
definitely by  resorting  to  repetitions  of  the  non-visual  process  for 
which  the  synaesthetic  imagery  stands;  (2)  it  functions  independ- 
ently of  specific  outline,  shape  or  form  for  the  reason  that  unlike 
the  asjTiaesthetic  imagery  it  is  not  a  direct  construction  of  a  visual 
scene  or  object;  (3)  it  does  not  function  as  does  other  visual  imag- 
ery as  a  secondary  or  supplementary  process  in  connection  with 

[  97  r 


The  Synaesthesiu  of  a  Blind  Subject 

non-visual  processes;  (4)  here  attention  is  invariably  centered 
upon  color  or  brightness  first  and  secondarily  upon  outline  or  form 
while  in  asynaesthetic  imagery  size,  shape,  contour,  etc.  may  be 
equally  important  features;  (5)  sjTiaesthetic  imagery  functions 
differently  in  the  development  of  meaning  in  that  unlike  ordinary 
visual  imagery  it  identifies  experiences  which  in  the  asynaesthetic 
individual  are  non-visual. 

3.  A's  visual  imagery  appears  in  an  entoptic  visual  setting  and 
on  a  diffuse  and  always  non-focal  kinaesthetic  background.  B's 
visual  imagery  invariably  appears  in  a  kinaesthetic  setting,  never 
in  a  visual  setting.  Both  reagents  agree  that  visual  imagery  is 
more  stable  when  it  appears  in  connection  with  imagery  of  other 
modalities  or  when  accompanied  by  incipient  movement.  B's  vis- 
ual imagery  resolves  itself  almost  at  once  into  tactual,  auditory  or 
kinaesthetic  processes.  It  cannot  be  compared  with  A's  in  matters 
of  stability,  detail,  and  sequence. 

4.  Both  reagents  agree  that  it  is  easier  to  visualize  objects  which 
have  been  handled  in  tactual-kinaesthetic  fashion. 

5.  In  recalling  visual  imagery  A  uses  visual  as  well  as  other 
cues.  B  uses  cues  which  are  derived  wholly  from  non-visual  mo- 
dalities. 

6.  A's  non-visual  imaginal  life  consists  first  of  an  indescribable 
consciousness  which,  with  the  sole  exception  of  kinaesthetic  imag- 
ery, can  become  a  datum  of  consciousness  only  through  the  medium 
of  visual  synaesthetic  imagery.  A  knows  of  the  presence  of  this 
type  of  consciousness  by  means  of  changes  in  the  behavior  of  the 
synaesthetic  image.  In  like  fashion  he  ascribes  to  this  vague  con- 
sciousness its  implied  "attributes"  of  quality,  intensity,  and  dura- 
tion. Without  using  visual  associates  he  is  aware  only  that 
** something"  was  present.  Further,  unless  accompanied  by  visual 
synaesthetic  imagery,  there  seems  to  be  no  possibility  of  knowing 
that  this  parent  process  ever  was  present  or  is  present.  In  other 
words  no  image  other  than  visual,  with  the  one  exception  of  kinaes- 
thesis,  can  stand  alone  in  consciousness.  The  vague,  imaginal 
parent  process  is  always  something  from  which  A  finds  his  atten- 
tion shifting.     It  is  always  a  "step  behind"  focal  attention. 

7.  These  facts,  cheeked  against  data  from  B,  show  that  synaes- 
thetic imagery  in  A's  case  function  as  essential  components  in  the 
development  of  meaning  and  that  synaesthetic    phenomena    are 

[98] 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

themselves  the  development  of  meaning ;  they  are  acts  of  cognizing. 
In  B's  ease  non-visual  imagery  rises  into  focal  consciousness  in  the 
presence  of  a  dominantly  kinaesthetic  background.  As  such 
images  develop  in  his  consciousness  they  are  meanings.  These 
meanings  are  stereotyped.  In  A's  case  this  development  of  mean- 
ing is  functionally  the  same  but  it  involves  the  presence  of  a  stere- 
otyped visual  process.  In  the  two  cases  the  mental  contents  differ 
but  the  functioning  of  such  contents  as  are  present  is  the  same. 

8.  A's  early  memories  are  confined  exclusively  to  visual  imag- 
ery. Experiences  originally  derived  from  non-visual  modalities 
are  recalled  in  terms  of  detached  synaesthetic  associates.  A  pos- 
sessed synaesthetic  phenomena  as  far  back  as  he  can  remember. 
Original  affective  experiences  are  recalled  in  terms  of  synaesthetic 
imagery.  Checked  against  B's  early  memories,  A's  data  show  that 
synaesthetic  imagery  consists  of  meaningful  processes  which  iden- 
tify original  experiences  as  auditory,  tactual,  kinaesthetic  or  emo- 
tional in  their  origin. 

9.  While  considerable  evidence  points  to  the  fact  that  B's  early 
memories  have  undergone  considerable  change  in  their  content  from 
visual  to  auditory  or  to  kinaesthetic  factors,  A's  early  memories 
have  suffered  practically  no  such  distortion.  Tests  over  four  years 
of  time  bear  out  this  fact.  B's  early  memories  show  by  contrast 
the  functional  significance  of  synaesthetic  processes  in  A's  early 
memories.  Evidently  the  presence  of  synaesthetic  imagery,  which 
is  itself  stereotyped,  has  kept  A's  original  memory  contents  free 
from  the  usual  distortion  and  elaboration  found  in  the  process  of 
forgetting.  B  has  found  it  necessary  to  elaborate  or  to  distort  the 
original  content  of  his  early  memorias  in  order  to  retain  meanings, 
since  the  original  contents  have  become  vague  and  attenuated 
througii  processes  of  dissociation.  But  in  A's  case  evidences  of 
dissociation  are  largely  confined  to  the  separation  of  synaesthetic 
images  from  their  parent  proces.ses.  Since  these  detached  associ- 
ates re([nire  no  such  distortion  or  elaboration  as  do  the  asynaesthetic 
processes  of  B  we  may  look  for  meaning  in  the  functioning  of 
synaesthetic  images  themselves.  Our  introspective  data  show  that 
this  interpretation  is  ju.stified. 

10.  A's  recent  memories  are  almost  exclusively  visual  in  tlieir 
content.  It  turns  out  that  immediately  after  any  non-visual  ex- 
perience has  occurred,  its  visual  a.s.sociate  tends  to  become  detached 

[99  1 


The  Synaesthesm  of  a  Blind  Subject 

from  the  parent  process.  The  visual  associate  thereafter  dominates 
in  processes  of  recall.  Checked  against  data  from  B  we  find  that 
A 's  synaesthetic  processes  in  recent  memories  function  as  meanings. 

11.  A  comparison  of  our  reagents'  early  and  recent  memories 
shows  that  forgetting  in  B's  case  results  in  a  gradual  dominance  of 
kinaesthetic  contents  and  in  A's  case  in  a  sudden  dominance  of 
visual  synaesthetic  images.  In  the  former's  case  elaboration  and 
distortion  provide  for  the  retention  of  meaning  and  for  its  simpli- 
fication. In  the  latter 's  case  detached  visual  synaesthetic  images 
themselves  function  as  meanings,  and,  being  in  themselves  stereo- 
typed and  simple,  require  no  such  distortion  or  elaboration  in  pro- 
viding for  the  retention  of  meaning. 

12.  In  A's  processes  of  imagination  in  which  motor  attitudes  or 
incipient  bodily  adjustments  are  aroused,  kinaesthetic  imagery  is 
less  quickly  translated  into  visual  synaesthetic  images  than  under 
conditions  in  which  incipient  movement  does  not  take  place.  For 
the  time  being  kinaesthetic  imagery  seems  to  be  identified  by  in- 
cipient movement.  But  if  the  reagent  attempts  to  attend  to  these 
kinaesthetic  complexes  they  at  once  give  way  to  complexes  of 
visual  synaesthetic  imagery.  The  immediate  arousal  of  visual  as- 
sociates is  apparently  unnecessary  when  a  given  non-visual  experi- 
ence leads  directly  to  overt  motor  adjustments  as  does  the  kinaes- 
thetic image.  But  before  this  entire  process  can  be  "cognized" 
visual  imagery  must  enter  consciousness. 

13.  In  A's  free  associations  synaesthetic  phenomena  function 
as  follows:  (a)  in  the  perceiving  of  the  stimulus  word;  (b)  in  the 
persisting  of  the  stimulus  word  in  consciousness  together  with 
vocal-motor  imagery  of  the  word;  (c)  as  antecedents  of  further 
visual  imagery;  (d)  as  the  responses  which  are  ultimately  trans- 
lated into  vocal-motor  imagery  and  innervations  of  the  response 
word.  Evidence  of  the  cognitive  functioning  of  synaesthetic 
phenomena  is  found  (a)  in  the  fact  that  a  synaesthetic  visual  image 
functions  in  the  place  of  a  response  word;  (b)  in  the  fact  that  a 
synaesthetic  image  aroused  by  the  stimulus  word  means  nothing  if 
it  does  not  lead  to  a  verbal  image  or  to  further  visual  imagery ;  but 
that  it  stands  for  non-visual  imagery  if  it  leads  to  a  response; 
(e)  in  the  fact  that  the  sj-naesthetic  image  must  be  revived 
if  through  faulty  attention  the  reagent  fails  to  perceive  the  stimu- 
lus word;   (d)   in  the  fact  that  the  synaesthetic  image  invariably 

nooi 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

plays  a  dominant  role  in  the  understanding  of  the  stimulus  word; 
(e)  in  the  fact  that  synaesthetic  imagery  frequently  determines 
the  direction  of  the  free  association;  (f)  in  the  false  interpretation 
which  the  presence  of  a  synaesthetic  visual  image  sometimes  leads 
the  reagent  to  make;  (g)  in  the  fact  that  in  recalling  the  visual 
associate  of  the  stimulus  word  during  delayed  reaction  it  may  seem 
to  the  reagent  that  he  is  recalling  auditory  imagery  of  the  word, 
although  no  auditory  qualities  are  present  to  consciousness;  (h)  in 
the  fact  that  synaesthetic  imagery  frequently  formed  the  content 
of  a  task  consciousness.  A's  procedure,  checked  against  B's,  re- 
veals the  fact  that  while  in  A's  free  associations  synaesthetic  images 
are  present  the  functional  aspects  of  his  responses  are  identical 
with  those  of  J5. 

VII,  Conclusions 

1.  Synaesthetic  phenomena  in  the  realm  of  A's  imaginal  life 
are  functionally  identical  with  allied  phenomena  in  his  perceptual 
processes.  Synaesthetic  phenomena  are  processes  of  identifying 
auditory,  tactual,  or  other  non-visual  * 'images."  Visual  synaes- 
thetic imagery  of  color  or  of  brightness  constitute  an  invariable 
and  integral  component  of  such  "images," 

2.  There  exists  in  A's  mental  life  a  non-definitized,  vague,  non- 
focal  set  of  experiences  which  become  data  of  consciousness  only 
through  the  medium  of  visual  synaesthetic  images.  It  is  the  "raw 
material"  from  which  definitized  images  or  meanings  develop.  It 
is  indescribable  and  is  always  a  step  behind  attention. 

8.  The  so-called  "secondary  sensation"  in  A's  synaesthesia  is 
invariably  a  visual  image. 

4.  The  synaesthetic  imagery  which  functions  in  imaginal  syn- 
aesthesia is  througiioiit  identical  with  the  synaesthetic  imagery 
which  functions  in  corresponding  perceptual  synaesthesis. 

5.  The  behavior  and  the  attributes  of  the  visual  image  in  A's 
synaesthetic  jilienoniena  reveal  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  par- 
ent image.     This  also  holds  for  perceptual  synaesthesia. 

6.  The  visiuil  associate  fails  to  identify  the  parent  image  in  the 
absence  of  the  latter  or  when  tiie  visual  image  fails  to  lead  to 
further  mental  processes.  This  holds  also  for  perceptual  .synaes- 
thesia. 

[1011 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

7.  The  visual  associate  persists  as  long  as  does  the  primary 
image  and  frequently  longer.  The  visual  associate  may  be  pro- 
longed or  retained  indefinitely  in  consciousness  if  the  reagent  suc- 
ceeds in  arousing  the  primary  image.  This  situation  also  obtains 
in  perceptual  synaesthesia. 

8.  The  intent  to  attend  to  the  primary  image  results  in  a  clari- 
fication of  the  \'isual  associate  rather  than  in  a  focalization  of  the 
parent  process.  When  the  reagent  is  instructed  to  ignore  the  visual 
associate  both  the  parent  process  and  the  visual  associate  disappear 
and  the  reagent 's  attention  is  claimed  only  by  visualized  strains  of 
attending.     This  is  also  true  of  perceptual  synaesthesia. 

9.  The  only  differences  which  we  have  found  between  percep- 
tual and  imaginal  forms  of  synaesthesis  accrue  to  the  differences 
by  which  the  two  forms  are  stimulated.  In  the  former  a  visual 
image  cannot  arouse  an  auditory  or  tactual  perception  or  lead  to  a 
fixation  of  attention  upon  an  auditory  or  tactual  sensory  experience 
in  the  absence  of  peripheral  stimulation.  In  the  latter,  a  visual 
image  may  arouse  its  tactual  or  auditory  parent  process. 

10.  Synaesthesis  in  our  reagent  is  not  confined  to  the  field  of 
perception;  it  is  a  cognitive  process  per  se,  pervading  his  entire 
mental  life  as  far  as  it  has  been  studied;  functionally  it  differs  in 
no  respect  from  any  process  of  meaning.  Synaesthesis  is  a  process 
of  meaning. 

11.  Synaesthesis  is  not  a  freak  phenomenon  the  explanation  of 
which  is  to  be  sought  in  a  unique  organic  condition  of  the  brain 
such  as  anastomosis  or  tangling  of  fibers,  lack  of  differentiation  of 
function,  circulation  of  the  blood  and  the  like.  It  is  a  normal 
mental  function  whose  contents  alone  differ  from  the  contents  of 
similar  functions  in  the  asynaesthetic  individual.  In  our  reagent, 
at  least,  synaesthesis  is  not  a  surplus  process  but  an  essential  one. 

12.  The  behavior  of  synaesthesis  together  with  its  function  in 
mental  life  suggest  that  it  is  a  form  of  conditioned  reflex.  The 
conditioned  features  of  these  reflexes  are  the  mental  contents  which 
have  become  stereotyped. 

13.  The  various  arguments  which  have  been  advanced  in  the 
past  in  favor  of  physiological  theories  of  synaesthesia  point  to  the 
cognitive  nature  of  the  phenomenon  rather  than  to  its  organic 
nature. 

[102  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

14.  It  is  suggested  that  the  development  of  a  conscious  activity 
requires  discharges  from  the  motor  projection  areas  of  the  brain; 
that  in  the  act  of  becoming  conscious  of  anything,  in  A's  case,  the 
visual  area  drains  from  all  other  sensory  regions  the  impulses  there 
set  up  by  stimulation.  In  this  way  impulses  which  subserve  the 
development  of  mental  activities  all  pass  through  the  visual  area 
on  their  way  to  the  motor  area.  This  gives  to  A's  consciousness 
its  dominantly  visual  character. 

15.  The  view  that  synaesthesis  is  cognitive  harmonizes  the  facts 
which  support  the  antagonistic  physiological  and  association 
theories. 

16.  We  believe  that  in  our  synaesthetic  reagent's  non-visual  ex- 
periences we  have  found  processes  of  the  type  which  we  assume 
characterizes  consciousness  at  birth  and  of  the  type  which  charac- 
terizes the  consciousness  of  an  individual  who  has  matured  but 
who  has  suffered  total  amnesia  and  has  been  obliged  to  begin  mental 
life  practically  all  over  again.  In  other  words  synaesthesis  gives 
us  an  opportunity  for  studying  as  directly  as  is  possible  conscious- 
ness in  its  "undeveloped"  or  "undifferentiated"  state,  the  state  of 
the  abstract  sensation.  In  our  reagent  it  is  quite  evident  that 
imaginal  as  well  as  sensory  processes  have  a  direct  root  in  an  in- 
describable and  cognitively  undifferentiated  type  of  consciousness. 


Note 

As  this  monograph  goes  to  press,  research  work  is  being  done 
on  four  sighted,  synaesthetic  reagents.  While  none  of  these  re- 
agents are  trained  introspectors  such  data  as  have  been  gathered 
confirm  the  following  results:  (1)  Synaesthesia  occupies  the 
same  functional  place  in  the  higher  thought  processes  a.s  it  does 
in  perceiving;  (2)  synaesthesia  is  a  phenomenon  of  meaning;  (3) 
the  reagent  does  not  become  aware  of  the  primary  process  until 
attention  is  directed  to  the  secondary  process;  (4)  the  secondary 
process — the  image — is  not  an  incidental  a.ssociation :  it  is  a  con- 
tent essential  to  the  reagent's  acts  of  cognizing. 

In  none  of  these  four  reagents  is  the  synaesthesia  as  wide-spread 
as  in  our  synaesthetic  blind  reagent  and  whore,  in  the  former, 
mental  contents  are  asynaesthetic,  meaning  functions  and  develops 
as  it  does  in  the  asynaesthetic  person. 

f  103  1 


The  Synaesthesia  of  a  Blind  Subject 

It  is  worth  mentioning  in  passing  that  throughout  this  series 
of  investigations  we  have  found  no  possible  clue  that  the  mental 
processes  of  the  blind  are  in  any  way  different  from  the  mental 
processes  of  sighted  persons.  Differences  are  confined  wholly  to 
contents  and  not  to  functions.  It  is  obyioijsly  an  injustice  to  segre- 
gate the  blind,  during  their  periods  of  education,  from  normal 
social  intercourse  with  sighted  persons  and  sighted  children. 

We  have  included  in  this  monograph  more  introspective  data 
than  was  perhaps  essential  to  demonstrate  our  statements  in  the 
text.  This  was  done  for  the  reasQn  that  our  psychological  liter- 
ature is  lacking  in  data  on  the  mental  life  of  the  blind.--  It  «s  hoped 
that  from  the  introspections  herein  may  be  noted*  the  detailed  and 
intensely  interesting  facts  concerning  the  behavior  and  character- 
istics of  imaginal  processes  in  the  blind.  The  monograph  has  run 
to  such  length  that  the  writers  felt  it  unwise  to  attempt  here  a 
summary  of  these  facts  inasmuch  as  the  purpose  of  the  res6arch 
was  not  to  study  the  mental  life  of  the  blind  but  the  phenomenon 
of  synaesthesia.  A  detailed  analysis  of  much  of  this  imagery  is 
to  be  found  in  the  main  body  of  the  text.  To  those  who  are  inter- 
ested we  extend  a  hearty  welcome  to  use  these  introspections  toward 
the  fulfilling  of  such  purposes  as  they  desire. 

VIII.  Bibliography 

1.  Azoulay,  Leon.     Audition  lumineuse  des  bruits.     C.  r.  des  seances  de  hiol.. 

Vol.  81,  1918,  1081-1082. 

2.  Bleuler,   E.     Zur   Theorie   der   Sekundarempfindungen.     Zsch.    f.    Psychol., 

Vol.  65,  1913,  1-39. 

3.  Chabalier,  in  Jotirn.  de  med.  de  Lyon,  Vol.  8,  1864. 

4.  Holden,  E.  S.     Color  associations  with  numerals.     Science,  N.S.,  Vol.  23, 

1906,  270. 

5.  Jordon,  David  S.     Colors  of  letters.     Science,  N.S.,  Vol.  46,  1917,  311-312. 

6.  Lowie,   R.   H.     Psychology   and  Sociology.     Amer.  Journ.  of  Sociol.,  Vol. 

21,  1915,  217-229. 

7.  Mudge,  E.  L.     The  common  synaesthesia  of  music.     Journ.  App.  Psychol., 

Vol.  4,  1920,  342-345. 

8.  Nussbaumer,  J.   A.     tJber  subjectiv  Farbenempfindungen.     Wien,   1873. 

9.  Steinbriigge,   uber   Fecondiire   Sinnesenipfindungen.      Wiesbaden,    1887. 

10.  Wells,  F.  L.     Symbolism  and  synaesthesia.     Amer.  Journ.  of  Insan.,  Vol. 

75,  1918,  481-488. 

11.  Wheeler,   R.   H.     The   synaesthesia   of   a   blind   subject.      Uni.    of   Oregon 

Publ,  Vol.  1,  No.  5,  1920,  61  pp. 

12.  Wheeler,    R.    H.     Visual    phenomena    in    the    dreams    of   a    blind   subject. 

Psychol.  Eev.,  Vol.  27,  1920,  315-322. 

13.  Wheeler,  R.  H.  and  Cutsforth,  T.  D.     The  number  forms  of  a  blind  sub- 

ject.    Amer.  Journ.  of  Psychol,  Vol.  32,  1921,  21-25. 

[104] 


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